eS ae ee ee
Qe
—
"
) ny
+ 1 4 jy j
tate) "
"
Bla
Gree leh ae
4 ee th agit
Ley AS iets tab yoke talt
an wit ry 4
#
Sin, Wi 1 Sboquedads Ha Rae ten
A}
ALS ue s Sane hd egat ae AACA Nat at siteaeet eda:
pets as ee 4 RF eit GAs \ ata
Yanga i Hike
Veet LW: Ait a
Nanay’ Ki ea ri Wi
se ieee Ch htt
miei ta onedddest
Nahant MRL TA
is
bY a Hi fl Loh
ih ae f auiny
VSP REL D
ch ie tk
a ;
os
Boers 2 pe ean aces Sisarsc iene ase aeet
a Was ht
wy: ; x a Hon t : PPR ai ih 1 Ht i
" u
y
ec eS in mt 4 is
Dts: a
bbe ear adeh
TERE ay, ae eres
ei 4
cit an
Th
ite nec ‘Neat
4304 ate rat
ne ao
F eae ee bid
tba ie Ra
th
DRY) iat
.
i DiAhus
4h ad
i
ai
»
; fy Naas NY f
a; i ASS y
mi 2. i
* an Mahe Ln
= srerete
rss oe ae
Fast
hy
Aiiay
ee) i
ei 13
\
ik
gobs stiles
ik
Mant
aa
te HE wiv
Advertisements.
—_—_————
*“ DOCTORS SAY WORRY KILLS, | BUT WE KNOW
NEGLECT always ends in DEATH.
THE DRUG STORE
= THAT STANDS IN A CLASS BY ITSELF | FOR PURITY AND PRICE.
Therefore come before it’s too Late to—
SMITH BROS.’ DRUG STORE,
The only House where you can secure a Patent Medicine to meet your Particular Case. If it’s more serious and needs The Doctor— call him in—he’ll tell you to take his ) _ Prescription where he is sure it would be Honestly Filled.
We Specialize in PERFUMES, COLOGNE and TOILET WATERS of Every Kind, TALC POWDERS for the Baby and COMPLEXION
POWDERS for Mother.
We carry the Goods: what you don’t see please ask for. Once | a Purchaser, always a Friend.
Smith Bros.’ Drug Store.
Advertisements,
Wieting & Richter, LIMITED.
Established 1871. incorporated 1910.
ee eee
AGENTS
Compagnie Generale Transatlantique.
PROPRIETORS
Demerara Biscuit Factory. Barbados Biscuit Factory. GEORGETOWN, DEMERARA. BRIDGETOWN, BARBADOS.
Guiana Rice Mill. Mahaicony Rice Mill.
Cold Storage and Ice Depot. Berbice Branch Store. WINES, GROCERIES & PROVISIONS. PROVISIONS & GROCERIES.
Ice Manufacturing & Cold Storage Plant.
GENERAL EXPOR'TERS & IMPORTERS, COMMISSION AGENTS,
Georgetown, New Amsterdam, Produce Exchange Buildings. BRITISH GUIANA, BRITISH GUIANA, * NEW YORK,
Advertisements.
a
ee —
SOME FIGURES
| relating to the transactions of THE DEMERARA LIFE during the current quinquennium which closes at 3ist
December, 1921. issue of Husiness. Over $3,800,000 with another Half-Year to go!
(Estimate of $4,000,000 at the beginning of the quinquennium likely to be easily exceeded by end of year.) —
Business in Force. | Nearly $5,090,000 to date against $2,291,607 at end of 1916. (This is the third occasion upon which the Society has doubled its
business in less than five years, but this performance is naturally a bigger achievement than any previous as the amount done is so much greater:) Life Assurance Fund. Likely to be increased by about Half a pen Dollars by December. investments.
Only about 60% of the Sum Invested in Bonds and Stock Exchange Securities at the beginning of the Quinquennium will be so invested at the end,by which time the RESERVE FUND will be more than qua- drupled out of current Interest and surpluses on Maturing Investments.
interest Earniags.
Mean rate on Mean Furd for past four years worked out at over 5,6" with every prospect of going higher this year.
Expenses of Management.
Down to 15.1% of premiums received previous half-year and as the Premium Income continues to grow the ratio for the quinquennium ‘should be very satisfactory.
For Rates, etc., of ‘the Company that brought down the cost of Life Assurance in British Guiana and the British West Indies,” apply to
i. B. SADLER, Secretary, 7 @=)— THE DEMERARA LIFE, l Pa Hand-in-Hand Buildings. ae ee 30th June, 1921. :
=
|
ae ES cra SO ra moc SE pane 0 rage ree ven ee SE i es aL Bia eee Rey ee ae ass eee sso ee Egy
Advertisements.
1665-1921.
The Hand-in-Hand Mutual Guarantee fire Insurance Company
OF
BRITISH GUIANA, LIMITED.
INCORPORATED 1865.
Established over 50 years ago with the object of providing cheap Insurance in the Colony, it has succeeded in this object and
is still doing so.
All information as to RATES and other particulars, obtainable on application at the Company’s Office :
LOTS I, 2 & 3, HIGH & NORTH STREETS, ROBBSTOWN, GEORGETOWN, DEMERARA.
J. SLATER,
Secretary.
Advertisemenis.
Satisfied Gustomers are our Best Advertisement
ee ate
EVERY CASE ONCE FITTED BY US IS RECORDED AND KEPT SO THAT WE CAN REFILL YOUR PRESCRIPTION WITHOUT BEING
PRESENT. Ea oe Over 5,000 Cases on Record. | Buy PRACTICAL GiFTs FROM
-SCHULER * JEWELLER,
(Opposite Smith Bros), 21, Water Street, Demerara, B.G.
Nugget Brooch. ; 0 le oe a Solid Gold Bangle. | Nugget Sleeve Links A large assortment of all kinds of v JEWELLERY Just to Hand.
Our Speciality in WATCHES, CLOCKS and JEWELLERY is HIGH VALUES at SMALL COST,
Advertesements.
BOOKER BROS., McCONNELL | and Company, Limited.
The Premier Merchants OF THE
WEST INDIES. Georgetown, Demerara, British Guiana.
GENERAL MERCHANTS, STEAMSHIP AND INSURANCE AGENTS,
EXPORTERS, IMPORTERS,
Agents in British Guiara for—
LLOYDS UNDERWRITERS ASSOCIATION, LIVERPOOL UNDERWRITERS ASSOCIATION, JAMES NOURSE, LTD.,
FURNESS, WITHY & CO., LTD.,
DUTCH GOVERNMENT STEAMERS,
ROYAL INSURANCE CO., LTD.,
MOTOR UNION INSURANCE CO., LTD.,
3 PVCS. ETC.) (ee Tes
GENERAL HEADQUARTERS—2I, Mincing Lane, London,
SHIPPING HEADQUARTERS—77, The Albany, Liverpool, England.
AGENTS IN NEW YORK-—L. & P. W. Armstrong, 106, Wall St., N.Y,, ane ca Scott & Co., Inc,, 2 & 4, Stone E.8 ah Ge
AGENTS IN HALIFAX—W. & C. H. Mitchell, Woods Wharf, Halifax, N.S.
ILLUSTRATED GUIDE TO BRITISH GUIANA SENT FREE ON APPLICATION
Re. : BOOKER BROS., McCONNELL & CO., LTD.
> a . Leyte
Hottite
ui: a
das th
‘TOTIOJUL FC 1 sw 119}UL FO yavd : UMNosny vuvtIny Ysytag
OF
(he iow! Agricultural and (Pommercial Sociely
OF
BRITISH GUIANA, >
JaMEs Ropway, F.LS., Edztor. STASI UB uOe Vol. VII. (Third Series), August, 1921.
PROGRESSIVE VOLUME.
Demerara :
THE “ARGOSY” COMPANY LIMITED.
CONTENTS OF VOLUME VIL.
(THIRD SERIES.)
EDITORIAL NOTES STAGES OF PROGRESS—J. Rodway
Progress IN NEw AMSTERDAM—J,. Van Sertima
SoME EXAMPLES OF INDIAN Mimicry, FraupD AND IMposTURE—W.
EK, Roth ATABARAU-WENA—C., I. Cary-Elwes... THE FARMER'S PRoGRESS—J. F. Denny CANE-BorERS IN 1878—Editor THE PROGRESS OF SANITATION IN British Guiana—F. G. Rose | ne TuE BEGINNINGS OF OUR ViLLAGES—J. G. Cruickshank PROGRESS OF SURINAM—Fred Oudschans Dentz
SONS OF THE BLAcK RACE AS PREACHERS IN OLDEN TimEs——Fred Oudschans Dentz...
A Piua FOR THE Mopern Woman—A Creole Girl ... WaraAo STorIES—C. Cooksey
JUVENAL’S PROVERBIAL PHILOSOPHY—J. Van Sertima THe CREOLE East InDIAN—Joseph Ruhoman
Our FUTURE PEASANTRY—P. M. DeWeever...
THE NEOTROPICAL RESEARCH STATION —William Beebe SHootine Norrs—G. E. Bodkin and C. T. Matthey FEATHERED FrienpsHips—L. D. Cleare, Jnr. Progress ?—Edgar Beckett ...
OccASIONAL NOTES
PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY os me ae
102 107 110 115 126 134 148 158
TIMEHRI: THE JOURNAL OF
THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL AND COMMERCIAL SOCIETY OF BRITISH GUIANA.
VOL. VII. AUGUST, 1921. PROGRESSIVE VOLUME
—_—.
EDITORIAL NOTES.
The present volume has been delayed much longer than the Editor could have wished, but possibly it is none the worse for that. We call it a ‘ Progressive Volume ” and put up the ideal of “ A Magnificent Province ” which was formulated about eighty years ago. This ideal can be partially attained though perhaps not to perfection. In the order of things we strain for the unattainable and if that is not Utopia we get a little nearer as we goon. An ideal suchas Civilization or Health can bo partially gained as we move but as it would not be desirable for us to relax our efforts, full attainment is impossible. This is easily understood when we find people content to be passive and to wait for others to move. The talkers have been often contrasted with the doers ; no doubt many of those who abuse and find fault with things could put their “ shoulders to the wheel” with better result.
We have tried to show that our Colony is really progressive, but of course we don’t want people to get into a condition where they think nothing more can be done. Our progress has been very slow and one of | our contributors entitles his article ‘‘ Progress ?” as if he doubted what we accept as a reality. The writer is a creole of the colony and decided- ly progressive himself ; we even think that he has done something, with good results. Even one good worker is proof of advancement and we can say of him that there is no question in his case, A few more workers of his type will make for a further advance towards the ideal of ‘A
Magnificent Province.”
We have laid some stress on the intellectual side of the creole be- cause we all admit that the mind is the higher standard. Those who say there has been no progress may read the articles by people of different races, showing a real advance of the intellect, which of course is human, and not bound by outside appearances. Throughout the West Indies
il. Timehre.
and Guiana the creole has begun to appear in the professions to an extent quite unknown until recent years and we may safely presume will be even more prominent in the near future.
That Timehri should reflect every aspect of progress is in accord- ance with its traditions and therefore we need not apologise for our at- tempt to put up the creole as coming into line with outsiders. At the same time such aman as Mr. Beebe stands forth as a naturalist from outside inviting others to come and see what a grand field we have. His work at Cartabo is indicated by an-article, but he has materials for more | than one book. Father Cary-Elwes’ great cataract may incite further explorations ; progress on that line is by no means at an end. What some one wrote of Kaieteur in 1870 is probably worth publishing, but the
» Hotel and Balloon trip were not realised.
The law of progress should come first when we attempt to do things. Like other natural laws it is obscured in many directions by fancied ideals, some of which are unattainable. From the best standpoints we see that the world and everything in it is changing for the better; we cannot find a beginning and need not look for anend. It is a chain of causation coming from the mists which hide its antecedents, but as there can never be a cause that is not also an effect, we have to say that eter- nal change is the principle, with no exception. Failure of one line is not ruin for we can change when there isreal necessity. When our colony gave up coffee and cotton to develop sugar there was progress, and if sugar should fail other products like rice and coconuts can take its place. :
But mere change is not everything, we want changes that mean progressive continuity or development. The colony lives and thrives in spite of failures—there is continuity with some progress, but we want more to make the “ Magnificent Province.” This ideal can be realised by hard work, for it does not mean something unattainable. Our prede- cessors worked very hard to make a line of plantations along our coasts, and it is curious to note that no new polders are being made. Were we inclined to look at the dark side of things, we might groan and complain as the old planters once did. | However, they made their livings in spite of difficulties and our children will, no doubt, be a little better off than ourselves.
THE BAUXITE INDUSTRY.
Railroad through the Bush.
THE BAUXITE INDUSTRY.
Shipping Bauxite.
STAGES OF _PROGRESS. 1, THE PHYSICAL ASPECT,
By J. Ropway.
In view of the possibilities of beneficial occupation of the interior of
_ our colony it may be well to survey the past history to see if any lessons
ean be gleaned that will help in our development. Something has been done, and though all will admit that it is very little, yet we can feel more
hopeful when looking to the North West and comparing our colony with
Spanish Guayana. We can see some reasons for congratulation and
should say that our predecessors were by uo means idle.
If we start with the beginning, we find that Essequebo was not a
| _ colony, nor was it expected to be anything more than a trading factory.
Colonies were attempted in other parts of Guiana but at the beginning everyone was a failure. If therefore Essequebo and Berbice were not projected to invite settlers we can plainly say that they were not failures on the lines for which they were established. Wecan go a little farther and say that while several projected colonies in other parts of Guiana were disastrous failures these were fairly successful,
Forts Kyk-over-al and Nassau were trading factories in a great
_ wilderness to which the native Indians might bring their small lots of
produce to exchange for tools and trinkets. No doubt the factors were always hoping to get more business; we cannot see that they were altogether idling for they sent people into the far interior to pick up cotton, tobacco and anatto. There was no suggestion of a settlement, even when the authorities began to grow a little tobacco and cotton. Later, sugar plantations were started on behalf of the Company and in time a few private planters made astart. But no particular efforts were made to get settlers, for the Trading Factory was not kept up for colonisation.
The Company’s servants at Kyk-over-al were practically exiles,
_ bound by the Articled Letter, and no doubt, eager to get home when
their term of service expired. When they went back to the Netherlands their reports of the ‘“‘ Great Wild Coast” were by no means favourable
for many privations were endured. Like other sailors they ardently
desired to get to places where they could spend their wages, which of course accumulated during their exile. Mutinies were reported at times especially when the regular vessels did not come out with food supplies ;
desertions also were not unknown. When people speak of slavery they donot always see that the bondage of the old sailors was in some respects
. worse than that of the negroes.
| |
“Suppose we put the starting point for the Essequebo Trading Factory at about 1620, we find that little colonisation was done until near the end of the 17th century. A few settlers came and got free land but they could not be considered as colonists.
2 Timehri.
‘We have an account of Kyk-over-al by Van Berkel who paid a visit in 1672, when there were only three private planters in the neighbourhood, The principal of these had about 30 slaves and the other two about a dozen each. They increased slowly and by the year 1698 were of sufficient importance to be taxed for their slaves at the rate of a dollar of three guilders per head. This became the main tax in later times, and the real settlers always objected to pay more than the legal dollar.
The slow development of Essequebo is shown by the erection of the Huis Naby on Cartabo Point in 1716, and the establishment of a Court of Justice two years later. The Court of Policy existed before as a quarterly meeting of the servants of the Company who discussed the probable results of the working of the plantations belonging to the Government. An apology for a capital was laid out under the name of Stad Cartabo, but only the Government Offices were of any importance.
The real colony may be conveniently put down as having commenced two centuries ago and we may put the starting point as the clearing for Pln. Pelgrim by the Company in 1721, This was a move down the river, the situation being near the Parika Creek nearly opposite Fort Island. A removal of the headquarters was then advocated but the Company were not yet prepared to spend money on a new fort.
From 1720 to 1770 was the most important period in our history ; it began with the move down the river, then came Fort Zeelandia and * finally the declaration that Essequebo was open to people of all nations with ten years’ exemption from taxes, Hitherto Essequebo was closed to foreigners and even Dutchmen outside the province of Zeeland were
almost excluded, Such a revolution could only have been due to the influence of a master-mind and this can be seen when we study the life of Governor Gravesande- We can see that he loved Essequebo and put up the welfare of the colony before his own interests. Fortunately for his colonisation scheme, the Company were not too much opposed to their Governor's projects though they were not fully convinced of their feasability. A measure of success was gained and although progress was slow it was steady and continuous. The first meeting at the new fort took place in 1739 and from that time the rea] development of Essequebo as a colony was assured. The Indian trade became secondary and because it was not of much value Gravesande put colonisation in the first place.
The new regime was started in 1741, at which time there were few plantations in the lower district though ‘the remove from near Kyk- over-al had begun. Sugar was the main product, but coffee had been introduced ; neither did very well in the upper district, but the prospects — of the remove were bright and Governor Gravesande became enthusiastic over his anticipations.
At that time there was some trade with New England, mainly for horses, and the Yankee vessels usually called at the islands, Barbados
Stages of Progress. 3
coming first. Wecan try to picture the stir among the quidnunes of that island when the “‘ Mary Ann” arrived from Essequebo with the news that the river was opened to all nations and that every settler could have a large plantation without fees and be entitled to ten years’ exemption from taxes.
The Barbadians of that day were as loyal to the Mother Country as they are now and therefore could not be expected to hurry off to Essequebo in a swarm. The Clarkes and the Gascoignes required time for consideration and meanwhile they discussed the matter over their cups in the Bridgetown taverns. !
Here was the Yankee skipper with the views of Governor Graves- ande who was confident that the river would, in a few years, be the most prosperous in this part of the world. Most of the islands were already worn out but Essequebo was exceptionally fertile. Then again it was so healthy that already people from neighbouring colonies had come over torecuperate. The fertility really outstripped belief and little was want- ing to make it one of the most blessed regions in the world. Kven the cane-borer was quite unknown.
The Barbadian, with his two or three acres of yams and sweet pota- toes, could get no information in regard to these precious roots. He gloried in his native island. Bea Dutchman? Not he! True Barbadian born! The finest place in the West Indies! Nothing came up to their happy oiland.
Essequebo! Pooh, pooh! It was overrun with mosquitoes and other pests. There was béte rouge, the parent of many sores; jiggers filled your toes with large colonies in a few hours. Nobody wanted to be jiggered. The pests got into your mouth, your eyes, your nose—you had to eat, drink and breathe flies. When you laid down lizards, cockroaches and snakes crawled into your beds and hammocks and when you got up scor- pions and centipedes stung your feet. Everything bit and stuny—life
would be a burden. There * were unknown insects with eleven legs and _ mine wings in your cups and on your bread and butter. The land might be free and good to look upon, but while you were admiring it everything _ around you was wanting to eat you out of breeches, waistcoat and coat. Things were too free altogether. Barbados for ever !
This sort of thing, no doubt, went on until someone chartered a _ schooner and went to see for himself. On his return people crowded round him to hear that the sugar canes on some of the new plantations were finer than anything he had seen in the islands. The Governor was ready to grant 500 or even 1,000 acres at once and the firewood got by clearing could be sold in Barbados. There was a shortage of labour, but anyone might take over his slaves and in wu few weeks make a start. The Barbadians began to waver and presently by ones and twos they came and got free grants. Two years after Governor Gravesande reported that there were seven English plantations. A little
4 Timehrr.
later he said that Messrs. J. Gibbs, W. Caddell and J. Panter, three of the principal inhabitants of Barbados, had come over bringing carpenters, masons and fifty slaves, with all necessaries for erecting mills.
There were people from Surinam and Berbice as well as other islands besides Barbados and in five years all -the best places in Essequebo were granted and there were applicants who could not be satisfied. Then began a cry for grants in the Demerara, which river had hitherto been ignored. Some objections were made by the Company who thought settlers would demand protection by forts, but this was got over by their agreeing to ignore this and let people go at their own risks. One of the objections made was that people might leave Essequebo and thus damage the older settlement.
However, the difficulties were overcome, the first applicant being Andries Pietersen, probably a Swede, who got the consent of the Com- pany in 1745 and ‘received a grant, on the 3rd of April, 1746, of 2,000 acres on or near the Coeleriserabo Creek. Four other grants were made on the same day, all up the Demerara River, one on the Camoeny of 1,000 acres to Bastian Christiansen, probably another Swede. Christianburg was granted later to Christian Finet of the same nationality. We have on the Demerara German names such as Berlin and Wismar and may presume that some of the mercenaries of the Dutch took up land after their discharge. Gravesande said that the only settlers from Essequebo were Jacobus van Roden and Andries Pietersen, the others coming from outside, This, however, only applies to the beginning for Finet had been in the other river for some years. Of the first settlers most were British from the islands ; Dutch and French were not so numerous. The most striking point was that a steady influx of settlers from outside came during the first ten years until all the facades were occupied.
There were no fees and at the first no surveys, it followed therefore that perfect freedom existed except for the choice of a location which the Governor made in such a way that there were no vacant blocks. Possibly friends might in some cases become neighbours but we do not find Dutch or English names in groups. ~Probably there was some rule by which the order of application was kept and very little choice allowed, some of the grants being described as bounded by others belonging to particular persons. On Bercheyck’s chart the blocks adjoin each other which would not probably have been the case had the applicants been allowed to pick out what they liked. It is evident, however, that there were few restric- tions, for even Berbice people said that Demerara was better off than they, some went over and induced others to follow them. The position to-day is undoubtedly due to the freedom at the beginning which enabled Demerara to outstrip Berbice and Essequebo. Berbice never gave the same privileges, hence it is still backward.
Those who took up land necessarily had to comply with the only conditions, which were to erect a house and begin to plant. The house
Stages of Progress. aes was generally a troolie shed and the planting was limited by the labour supply. Most of the preliminary clearing was done by native Indians, who were more numerous tha nthey arenow. Unfortunately, advantage was taken of their craving for “‘kill-devil,” the fiery rum then made in Essequebo. There was always a shortage of labour and we have to excuse our prede- cessors for using the only inducement they could find. Early travellers speak of the way the natives treated all attempts to employ them under engage- ments. Jobs were undertaken for axes, knives and guns, but when these were obtained the men wanted to get away and use them for their own pleasure. Only kill-devil could induce them to do more.
The banks of the Demerara, as I saw them fifty years ago, hardly showed a sign of inhabitants for the few river people hid their huts inside the bushes. From 1746 to 1760, however, there were clearings in front with benabs in sight at regular intervals. Those who had creeks near at hand could lay down water-mills, others had to be content with horse and cattle mills which however were scarce because few animals were available. Probably the river has never shown such stirring scenes as it did then when people were coming and going from Essequebo to Demerara in corials and everyone trying to make a start.
Soon, however, there was disappointment. Sugar was the main object and after the first clearing fair crops could be obtained from the lower _ grounds near the river or in the creek gullies. We can, however, see now
that the Indian system of burning the forest does not conduce to perma- nent fertility, for after two or three years a new clearing has to be made _ beeause the first has been exhausted. As for the back lands these are generally barren sands, gravels and clays, hardly worth cultivating with anything at all, much less sugar. No doubt the pioneers worked very hard with hopes and expectations but some of them gave up the struggle ; possibly such names as “Broke Pot ” and “John Trewern’s Folly” are relics of such failures.
T have always taken much interest in the suggestive names of our plantations. Up the Demerara we have Bimpshire, Little Barbados and New St. Eustatius, suggesting the islands from whence their owners came. _ Few “ Hopes” are found up the river but there is “ Land of Canaan ”
_and ‘ Garden of Eden ” ; “ Leert Zorg” suggests that the owner had _ some painful experience ; ‘De Wildernis ” would be suitable for the whole settlement. Plenty of work had to be done without much capital or labour and we can be sure that a fair trial was made of the river banks before people came down to the coast.
, It seemed, however, that each of the three rivers took the same course _ from upper to lower, Essequebo first, then Demerara and finally Berbice, the last delaying possibly to be sure of the success of the others, In the half century we are considering the move in Demerara began and it was carried out on much the same — lines as on the other river. Here, however, windmills were
—
6 Timehri.
prominent and the early voyagers took their bearings from them ; that of Pln. Kitty had a flag and was a landmark for the entrance to the river. We can reckon that the pioneer work was done in about thirty years, and though it was done slowly it was a paving of the way towards another stage. ;
The second fifty years was notable for consolidation. There was not the same freedom, for after Gravesande retired in 1772, stricter rules were made, not altogether agreeable to many of the British planters. However, all the coast plantations were taken up, the Canals, Nos. 1 to 3 dug, coffee and cotton grown on the lower districts and most of ‘he river plantations abandoned. Capital and labour were introduced, especially after the British arrived in 1796, and the exports rose from almost nothing to be of considerable value The capital, Stabroek, was laid out by the French in 1782, and the town grew when Barbadians of the lower class came over and began to cater for the poorer people as hucksters. Progress under Dutch rule was slow but steady—a little spurt was made with the arrival of the British. Labour was absolutely necessary and until the suppression of the slave trade in 1807, the supply was almost equal to the demand. Plantations of a few acres extended their cultiva- tion until some were half occupied. We may say, however, that few were able to empolder the whole area of their grants.
The stoppage of the labour supply was a severe check to progress; so long as slaves were available every estate could be developed, after- wards one must be stinted if others were to go on. Cotton and coffee began to decrease and sugar came to the front. There were ups and downs, largely due to the value of produce; some plantations on the coast gave up their cultivation and cattle farms began to appear. On the whole progress was slow and sure, for even Berbice came down to the coast and New Amsterdam followed Stabroek. In a general way Berbice was hampered by want of British settlers and was generally ten years behind Demerara.
We now come to the third stage from 1820 to 1870, the most criti- cal period in our history. The labour supply having been stopped development depended more upon the value of produce. If canes gave a better profit than coffee or cotton, the only thing to be done was to aban- don the less profitable crops. As, however, sugar required more labour the abandoned coffee and cotton estates could hardly be kept up in canes. The general result was concentration of labour on afew instead of a fair distribution to the many. This was the beginning of what we see to-day, abandonment of several estates to bring the labour supply to one.
The beginning of this period is notable for the survival of sugar as the fittest product under the circumstances. In studying survival people often put up one cause only and the general idea is that cotton and coffee fell at the Emancipation. But the causes were numerous and the most important was the comparative value of labour on a sugar plantation as compared with the same work with the other products ; the prices were
- Stages of Progress. 7
alsoimportant factors. Cotton fell in price and coffee followed until they ceased to pay ; sugar gave fair returns hence it remained. Many planters failed when cotton fell in price; the end was more sudden than that of coffee which remained for many years after real cultivation and picking had ceased.
The critical aspect of this period, however, is seen best in the Emancipation difficulties. Labour could be depended upon at first, but when no one could say whether he might get labour to reap, he hesitated to plant. The freedmen were entirely selfish and therefore were bad citizens. It is true that all of us are selfish, but we mostly like to have comfortable and pleasant surroundings, to obtain which we sometimes take some trouble. Were we entirely selfish nothing beyond food, clothing and a shelter would be desired. This was the position of the freedman ; the comforts and luxuries of a town did not appeal to him; it seemed as _ if he cared for nobody and that he thought nobody cared for him. Hitherto he had been a negligible quantity but now he became somebody of importance. No matter that he cared for nothing others wanted to live and not have a labour-starved colony.
4 At first it seemed as if all the progress made by the early pioneers _ would be wasted. Already the river estates were gone and many a gap _ existed in the coast line where the owners had failed. Some supposed that the villages would take the place of the plantations but their hopes were not justified. Where once order reigned became confusion and no freedman cared about canals, roads or bridges. Most of the old planters were ruined ; some were actually destitute. New people became owners of the estates and wanted to get labour from anywhere ; immigration began and at first produced much trouble. No one knew what could or - should be done, or what people were most suitable, The result was at first streets full of beggars and hospitals with the sick and dying. The old colonial system ended and the new birth was most -distressing. However, the new planter looked upon the estates with names like ‘‘ Better Hope ” and put his shoulder to the wheel, He succeeded the man who _ was really struck down, for very few had survived the great catastrophe. Slowly but surely the colony recovered by means of indentured labour and when we come to 1870 we find the export of sugar greater than it had ever been before. Then also Demerara sugar had a name in England ; people liked it when I was a boy.
The last stage comprehends 1870 to 1920 and we may say plainly, in spite of the croakers, that there has been considerable progress. In the ’eighties the prosperity of sugar was much hampered by the European bounty system, but it was kept up mainly by the amalgamation of estates and economy in working. Labour has been fairly abundant through immigration and the freedman appears to have found his place. Plantation work is not so congenial to the negro as jobbing; he wants to work when he likes and then take a few days’ “ rest.”
8 Timehri.
This stage may be called that of the opening of the country ; ina way it resembles that which led to the Demerara settlement. The interior is being opened but not on Gravesande’s easy lines. It is true that we have steamers running along the coast and for some distance up the rivers yet the Crown Lands Regulations fetter progress to a great extent. We are hampered too much and if anyone expects to be as free as the early pioneers he will soon find out his mistake. Perhaps, however, it was a very bad thing for the Indian that the Demerara pioneer had no restrictions on the use of ‘ kill-devil,” The fact remains however that we are hampered in the employment of natives even when they are willing to work for us.
Before 1870 only a few travellers had gone to the interior. A large district was locked up through the Boundary dispute with Venezuela. The sugar planter was jealous of his labour supply ; he had struggled hard to get it and when about 1880 there were rumours of gold discoveries he feared that a rush would ruin him. However, the gold industry came, followed by balata and diamonds. The old ery that all our eggs were in one basket was heard in 1870 and several people advocated minor industries. Rice was mentioned and sometimes a housewife would put a dish of creole rice on the table as a luxury. Everybody knew that rice could be grown and yet the creoles hardly looked at it. Villagers could have planted it in quantity as the runaways did before the end of the eighteenth century. Governor Gravesande thought it the most suitable for the small planter and yet no one took it up as an industry. Coconuts were also well-known and were once used to wedge the sugar hogsheads on board ship; but no one dried copra or made oil until quite recently. I will not enumerate the préducts which are now in their infancy, but only state that we can say plainly that during the last fifty years we have developed things that should have been thought of long before.
It seems, however, that development of a new country is very slow; things at our doors are found to be valuable, but it takes time. Then our people want to be taught and this is a slow process. Heredity is very strong and it is not alone the negro who does things in the same way as his father and grandfather once did them. It seems asif ‘“‘red tape” is the same principle; every clerk asks how the thing was done before. It is evident that progress consists with starting on new lines without the hampering of custom and habit. Even good habits must be ignored when circumstances render them undesirable and probably the colony would be better for a general relaxation of the rules. The real colonisation took place when land was free and there were no burdensome taxes. We have nine-tenths of the colony undeveloped and this large area should not be locked up.
The old plantation system cannot be revived and when we look over the world we find it becomes more difficult every year to reconcile capital
——-
Stages of Progress. 9
and labour. The ideal would be for every man to save enough in a few years to make a start for himself, i.e., become his own capitalist. In the tropics a man can get a bare living from one or two acres of land if he is industrious and get a few luxuries by working for a neighbour. The general idea of working one day a week and idling for the rest can be seen in practice among some of our Bovianders. The living, however, is unworthy of the age, in fact it is not consistent with civilization. I have seen these people, who apparently live on next to nothing, with no am- bition or self-respect. If we aim for real progress we must try to develop these people until they have desires and aspirations for betterment and will feel ashamed that their wives and children should be wanting in the simplest eonveniences of a town or village.
The homestead, with a good roof for the house and plenty of simple food, can be got by every Boviander who has a plot of land, but even these were wanting when I came to the colony. Now and then I wished to buy food but could hardly find even a few plantains to roast. The hut was rotten with a leaky roof and the surroundings a jungle. There were children who had no use for clothing, but most of them were half-starved. Yet they were happy enough for they could not miss what they never had. The dear little boys and girls who paddled my bateau and enjoyed a ‘‘ walk” up the creek were by no means miserable. They sang as they paddled, ran about the jungle picking the palm fruits and almost anything that would stave off their hunger. They existed and probubly lite was worth living, though the looker-on thought they should have been mis- erable. However, most of our discontent comes from what we miss that we once had, or envy of others who have things we cannot get. People
may be happy enough when ae don’t see others feasting and wearing
fine clothes.
We don’t want to encourage that sort of thing but to get people with wants who will be driven by ideals of comfort, cleanliness and full stomachs, Though happiness does not necessarily consist with wealth, there is pleasure ‘in that stage where absolute necessaries are available. The grandest ideals of home do not consist with bare surroundings such as some of our sanitary people appear to advocate, but beneficial eccupation of every bit of land. Such gardens as we can see in England round every cottage are sanitary and pleasing in every way. Man can be elevated or depressed by his surroundings; I can conceive that the bareness of a jail would be repulsive to many people.
Governor Gravesande had an ideal which can be considered, though it must be modified to suit our time. Hither the Government or some joint-stock Company might supply every emigrant family with $800 to
be repaid in instalments, Land was free and the head of the family might
get four labourers and pay for clearing and building a house of the benab type. ‘The first planting would be of such necessaries as were actually required to feed the family, after which would come produce for sale. He
10 Tumehrr.
advocated rice and coffee, both of which realised good prices, the first giving an immediate return. One of the drawbacks of the poor man has hitherto been the want of some crop that can be quickly realised and this we now have inrice. Itis curious that though it was known and liked a century and a half ago our people never took it up until the East Indians led the way. The settler would naturally grow plantains, cassava and other desirable food products, but no one could be reaped as quickly as rice. Gravesande advocated a trial with 25 settlers, who, if successful, could give the result of their experience for the benefit of later arrivals.
The greatest difficulty in early times was isolation. There were no roads and of course no shops, churches and schools. Doctors were few and hard to get. Those who take up land away from the settlements are even now much hampered by the same disabilities. The Demerara villages were started to prevent such isolation which could be once seen up the river. Much can be said in favour of villages and something against them. What we want is cheap and easy communication so that a homestead would not be quite out of the world. Those who speak against the development of the coast and advocate opening the interior, forget that something good can be seen in the present conditions. The ideal should be a full development of what is nearest and a gradual extension. There is no doubt that the coastlands are most fertile and therefore should come first.
There was. an old project which we may consider to-day; the Cuming’s Canal It was to reach from the Demerara River to the Mahaica Creek and have plantations on either side. Produce would not be shipped by sea or rail but brought down the canal. It is evident that a new set of plantations could be laid out aback of the present line, in fact it could be like No. 1 Canal which was projected to extend to the Essequebo. The old canals were not dug by the Government but by the grantees of the land on their banks.
Here we come to a very great difference between the olden time and to- day ; Government was not the milch cow as it is now supposed to be. The land was free and the people wanted to develop it, but they rarely asked | for assistance. The water ways and roads were the work of the estate owners ; of course everyone looked after his own property, in fact he would have resented government interference. Social conditions are of course different, one of the contrasts coming through the want of labour control. It was once easier to calculate the cost than it is now, but formerly aslave must be bought, where now a labourer can be employed for as many weeks as he is required. The old settler was somewhat hampered by the preliminary cost, but it amounts to much about the same except that perhaps slave labour was cheaper in the long run. It must, however, be remembered that given a cheap labour supply, such as we have in some countries it would not be economical to take over the whole burden of keeping our servants in childhood, old age and sickness. We
~
SSE eee
Stages of Progress. 11
can compare the slave with the idle boy who wants to have the same privileges as another who is industrious ; he objects to work and must be coerced.
The early settlers were bound to get labour in some way, hence they bought slaves and paid a lump sum at the beginning if credit could not be obtained. Probably a man with the same capital to-day could use it to better advantage by employing a large number at first and then going on with afew. The slave-owner had to use his labourers in the best way he could for he could not vary the number though his requirements might be greater or less: according to seasons. Here we have one of the difficulties of a fixed labour supply ; the same.people are available at all times and those only, though harvest may require three or four times the usual number. Were our villagers to occupy all their land they would sometimes require help from each other and unfortunately there is no bond of union between them. Probably the first idea of the village was co-operation but we can see that this has not been carried out. Suppose we have families, in some cases children will be old enough to assist, in others they are too young and labour must be hired. Those who advocate certain measures often fail to comprehend every aspect of the problems.
The authorities generally say they watt to develop the country, but they act as if the opening up of the interior should be hampered by rules and regulations. Order is desirable but we must try to get a fair balance between liberty and licence. Because this is not easy the supposed better way is taken which hampers every pioneer with fees and permits. The
sound principle that some risks must be taken is well understood by a
new settler but the Government practically says there must be no risk of law-breaking. ‘The position of a government can be compared to _ that of a business ; every merchant knows that he must take risks,
The new colonist has generally very little money and he wants it all for the preliminary work. It is good for the colony that he should develop the wilderness and he is more likely to succeed if he has a free hand. I must remind the reader that Demerara is the result of perfect freedom ; some would say license. By its fruits we must judge this as well as other things. | o
I presume that what I say will not make any real impression and yet I must say it. The development of the country should not be ham- pered as itis now. Ihave been told by people who are spending money to find new industries that the trouble and expense is almost prohibitory. The pioneers’ work should be facilitated in every possible way so that only the natural difficulties have to be encountered. These are by no means few ; why then add a burden of “red tape” ?
12 7 Trmehra.
2. THE INTELLECTUAL SIDE,
In connection with the progress of the colony it would be well to find out whether creoles are becoming more intellectual. Everyone is sup- posed to accept the idea that the mind is the real standard of all men and therefore development of the mental side is possibly more important than getting food or money. However, wealth and comfort are — generally put first and we find that pioneers in every country almost ignore the intellectual standpoints; they may be prosperous and yet ignorant. :
The literary side of the West Indies and Guiana for early times must be studied from without, for all the old books were written by Europeans; probably down to about fifty years ago nothing but journalism was taken up by creoles. Here and there a white creole with an European education wrote a description of some colony or the West Indies in general but the real West Indian, born and bred here, was hardly fitted to give such accounts. Possibly a little may have been done by Jamaicans and Barbadians, but the crevle of British Guiana had no literary ability. Even the journalists of this colony when not English, were generally Barbadians. We can therefore study the beginnings and try to suggest lines of progress which may be seen in one or two more generations,
The lines of progress in the literature of the West Iudies and Guiana appear to be first, descrigtive accounts by voyagers and travellers and second, studies of the fauna and flora including man. Much has been done on these lines, but hitherto, always by outsiders, Europeans or Americans, and until the last fifty years no creole, white or coloured, has been conspicuous. It is evident that some awakening might be expected, and I happen to have been able to see in my residence in British Guiana, what I may call the birth of a literature.
For convenience I shall include all oreoles of the Islands because some of the Colonial writers have been Barbadians. Even the first printers came from “ Little England” and several newspaper editors, including Mr. Braithwaite of the ‘“‘Creole.‘ As a rule however editors have been British and I cannot say that they did much beyond encourag- ing creoles to become reporters. ‘he early British schoolmasters and clergy helped to develop teachers of primary schools and possibly in time we may have good results from them.
The earliest literary work is compilation and this is largely done by editors who have recently encouraged reporters to write original sketches that will be the germs of Guiana literature. We can already see how this has begun and possibly the names will be better known in a few years.
The starting-point of science, history and literature is collectinfige’. Specimens and facts; it follows therefore that compilation comes first.
= ~
Stages of Progress. | 13
Those who start in anything at all must gather their knowledge from all available sources and in bookwork they are compilers who sometimes content themselves with bare records or notes of supposed authorities. Such compilations without much critical examination can be found in our local literature as the Histories of Dalton and Bennett. Mr. F. M. Carbin, a Surinam creole, was a compiler who never got beyond the collecting stage. We had, however, in Mr. Darnell Davis, a West Indian, one of those ardent collectors who could estimate the value of any old docu- ment, and possibly if he had lived might have written some valuable West Indian studies. He was kind enough to give me several copies of MSS. which I used in my history, and I much deplored the loss of his collections during the war.
- The compiler notes what others have done but. does little himself. Few creoles have made careful observations but I must mention one, Mr. J.J. Queleh, who saw things and recorded them in avery pleasant way. Perhaps, however, his English education excludes him from our study of
_ the writers born, bred and educated in the West Indies. Some descrip-
tive writing by true creoles can be found in the files of the “ Argosy” and “Daily Chronicle” as well as ‘“‘Timehri.” The best writer we have is Harold W. B. Moore, whose pictures of insect life are often graphic ; he is a born naturalist. Possibly L. D. Cleare, junior, will excel on similar lines,
From a literary standpoint, however, records of observations must be made into readable essays, fiction or poetry. It seems as if collecting and describing must be supplemented by the imagination ; in fact litera- ture started with myth and fable. Primitive man was utilitarian and could not become a real thinker until he adopted what we call make- believe. The artist sees something in a landscape which others miss and the novelist throws a glamour over a simple incident. The painter sees much where others see nothing and the literary artist can give us vivid pictures where everything looks dull. To bring before us what he sees and we do not, is the standard of what we call a picturesque writer. Man, beast and plant live and move ; they are not artificial puppets. He who ean paint such pictures in words necessarily comes first from the literary standpoint. Certain famous writers like Darwin, Bates, Wallace and Waterton have enabled the people who never saw a tropical country to get ideas of the reality unknown to those who never read their works.
No crecle has yet been conspicuous as an admirer of the wonderful and beautiful scenery of our colony. A few have attempted to describe trips to the gold and diamond fields, but I know of nothing like the word- pictures of Waterton and other travellers from outside. It isa well- known fact that a visitor sees more than a resident, though perhaps his views are less accurate. We have no creoles des scribing the glory of our
| _ rivers and creeks, though many have seen them.
But we do see pictures of human life walliauy by Messrs. Van Sertima, Moe and a few others who. however, do not seem to love Sarah
‘“
14 Timehri.
Theophilus and Theresa. This suggests that the picture should be beautiful and free from blots and smears. The brush must have plenty of love to soften the darker shades with glows of brightness. ‘The balance is to the good in everything and we can love people in spite of their faults. Some of our people have not yet found out the good side, but I must say that “ Sarah ” could be loved.
The writer whose pen is never dipped in gallis Mr. J. G. Cruick- shank. When he writes of the African we ean see the old fellow before us’ as a simple child of nature, nearer to God than many of those who think themselves ‘“ highly superior.” I may not live to seeit, but I ean safely state that future generations will appreciate Mr. Cruickshank’s word-pictures. His style is peculiarly graphic with many dashes to add to the effect. He is never ata loss for the right word and he does not make his people repulsive. Probably he agrees with me in the principle that if you cannot find any good in a man we should say nothing about him. Itis rarely pleasant to dwell upon mistakes and blunders, especially when all know that they themselves are not faultless. Love to others begets a kindly feeling in ourselves, which is undoubtedly pleasant and profitable. To write of something we love is more desirable than to be picking faults in people we dislike, and when We begin our literary studies the start should be on the best lines. The artist does not generally like to paint horrible punishments or tortures nowadays though the older painters revel in such things ‘The fault-finders will perhaps say that loving sympathy means bias; very well, let us favour the best side so long as we do not tell lies.
We havea good writer in Mr. Edgar Beckett and I have no doubt he will be remembered by the next generation. The drawback to some of our writers is their anonymity; some of their best work has no name.
Christmastide and the Christmas Chronicle have done something by offering prizes ; the result has been that some creole ladies have come to the front. Mrs. Dinzey, Mrs. Messervy and ‘‘ Lavinia Gray” may be ‘mentioned, but I cannot tell the names of all because I confine myself to a few examples. Mr. Christiani writes a good story, but possibly the best of the men was Norman Bascom, a Barbadian creole. —
I was asked last year for an account of our local poets, but I am afraid little can be said about them. The most prominent was Edyar Martin, ‘‘ Leo,” who I suppose was a creole of Madeiran parentage. Dr. Dalton wrote ‘‘ Tropical Lays,” and there have been verses in the news- papers now and again that we may consider fairly good. Mrs. Sarah Swain was once prominent as the ‘“ Poetess and Novelist of the West Indies.” I feel, however, that the poet of the tropics has not arrived ; perhaps the time is not yet ripe. 3
A few musical pieces have been written by creoles, perhaps the most notable is Mr. P, M, de Wever. :
Stages of Progress. 15
- A tragedy, “ Phileron,” written by Mr. W. J. Veecock, when a student at Edinburgh, showed promise, but, poor fellow! he did not. live long enough to bring out his latent powers.
I must again ask those not mentioned to remember that this is not a list but only an attempt to show that some creoles can write.
The reader may perhaps laugh wheu I tell him that the most remark- able little creole book I ever saw, is ‘‘ A Voice from the Woods” by Walter Theophilus Pieters, published in 1886, and probably without revision by any European. Evon some standpoints it 1s humorous butt the writer is evidently serious, There is a suggestion of Johnsonian language anda hint of the long introductions found in some old books, but on the whole there is a picture of the thoughts and feelings of the writer. There are eight introductory chapters, occupying a fourth of the book and a pre- face ; in this preface Mr. Pieters says : —
“ The whole tone of this book is only the natural tone of its writer, and a few of its orthoeraphical forms, his preferences.”
Here is originality and in several other places he hints that he is not following any pattern :—
“Should there be any mistakes or erroneous opinions or conclusions found herein I must ask to be excused.”
The student is quite ready to excuse anything when it is not imita- tion, for unfortunately there is too much of that in our colony. ‘The first introductory chapter starts by saying :—
“There is not any sane individual, however scant his faculties, how- ever limited his advantages may be, who may not be able by persev cae ; and Gou’s blessing, to make himself both good and wise.”
We can call this platitude or commonsense as we please, but it is not foolishness. No doubt Mr. Pieters’s philosophy was got from school books, but it is not mere repetition., Some thinking has been done to make this passage in the second introductory chapter :—
“It isnot to be expected any man ought to (with Dey perched on his cot) always remain silent—especially when he ought to be noticed —or hang his harp on willow trees when by relating his past useful labours and present unfair circumstances he may be noticed and removed from distressing conditions of want and misery to under sunshine’s cleamings.”
He goes on to speak of a noble mind, implying that he has such and that it is bravely eccentric and shuns the beaten path “ through ite benevolence.” There are certainly many signs of eccentricity in the book and that makes it valuable. Perseverance is dealt with and he con- siders it strange for anyone of a certain race in British Guiana to really persevere :—
‘I say again—perseverance is good—wise—necessary—especially now-a-days —so critical—so troublous— so dry—so famine-like—so singu-
16 Tumehri.
lar—being altogether changed—so as that it appears (to me) strange circumstances will produce strange things.”
He was determined, ‘I will, I must persevere ; for I feel ’tis just the time to do so.” Here we see that he is straining to express himself and no doubt felt as we all do that our inmost feelings cannot be fully expressed. There was something in him and like a child he tried to bring it forth ; in some cases we find it hard to distinguish his meaning but in general the involved sentences can be analysed. His efforts can be seen ‘in several places and he is not so conceited as some we know.
‘And although I may he dark when . . . compared with to any European race yet ; T feel that pure liberty of thought and will, which can only originate within a heart regenerated (or changed by spiritual | light) —shining within the soul and therefore discoverable in the in- tellect.”
Anyone can see that this is not quite the goody-goody string of quotations that we commonly find in such pamphlets, He is not fearless and yet—
“ A doubtful trembling temerity is not honourable. I could not for all the world feel so, nor are there such dispositions of fear on me abiding.”
‘“T stand on shaky foundations, not shaken altogether by my own faults, but by many discouragements. . .. If J do not succeed perhaps it will be for the better.” :
There is a suggestion of fatalism but it is modified—-‘‘I must either stand or fall on those foundations, I must either live or die.”
He accepted the usual teaching of the churches‘ and was not quite satisfied with the theory of attraction as he understood it. I once met a fairly intelligent black man who could not grasp the idea of the earth rolling through space with the possibility of everything falling off. Mr. Pieters, however, has tried to think out the matter :—
Perhaps ’tis that universal-like attraction, which, so long ago for ages past—(considered by some individuals a mighty giant) ... that makes the tiny snipe, plovers, and these birds called sea gulls ; and fishermen balance themselves so curiously or shaky-like on tae own native shores. When I see these birds their heads and tails appear to play see-saw and bo-peep with their slender legs.”
He evidently saw things and would have liked to understand as we are all trying todo. I can sympathise with him when he says :—“ We can: only try to know but what perhaps we may never know.” Here we have what we may call the fruits of philosophy, straining after ideals that are unattainable.
The moreI analyse the little book the more pleased I am with the peep he gives me into his mind. Itis so very hard to get such peeps, I
Stages of Progress. 17
can see Mr, Pieters as I once knew him and hear him talk of his life at Groete Creek. But he was not so free with his ideas when conversing as he is in his book. The sixth introductory chapter starts with :—
‘< Words do sometimes act as arrows, swords, ointment, medicine— balms or cordials for our wounded spirits—antidotes to our fears,
* But it is according to the state or condition of our hearts that words which might do us good do not—and such truths as ought to com- fort us sometimes prove like blunted arrows on our hardened hearts— instead of consolation to our wounded breast,”
There seems to be something here not quite plain ; perhaps he means that some people were abusing him with hard words and others applying the cordial or balm. We all knqgw how some words pierce the soul and others soothe ; it is quaintly put and not involved when we analyse it. Like most of us he wanted to get a solution of the problem of continuity after death :—
“The soul is allowed either its supernatural acts, so as to form itself, as I have already hinted, or forms are sometimes impressed on the spirit of man after death, according to its various tempers or dispositions.”
He believed in ghosts and generally in the church teaching but like most of us was not satisfied ; he winds up his argument for continuity with the Utopian ideal so widely diffused where :—
| “Truth in its heavenly purity will reign throughout heaven and in our spiritual bodies ; and everlasting unalterable friendship hallowed in love, never to be broken or troubled by mistake or jealousy. All who will not do justly on earth--those who will not Jove mercy, nor walk humbl with God, will be unprepared for all those future seasons pointed out.”
The introductory chapters end with a discourse on sin and death with few original ideas; where nothing is known, anything can be imagined, and all of us are groping in the dark. At page 27 begins the account of his three years at Groete Creek, which is descriptive in his
_ peculiar way, and by no means of the ordinary type.
He was born, bred and educated in Georgetown and never before saw a creek until 1880, when sent as schoolmaster to the Presbyterian Mission station at Groete Creek. He was pleased with all he saw and I can hear him now as he told me of the beauty of the creek. Of course I was sympathetic for I also always enjoyed the creeks and the pleasant inhabitants of the forest. He showed me the picture mentioned in his
- book :— 2
“ I sketched more than a yard long, and half yard wide, the Creek’s mouth, etc., or entrance, with its adjoining southern sand-shore, etc., and heavy timbers, launched off rough river punts, and lying at slanting easiness as if regardless who took them up or who laid them there.” :
: It was the kind of drawing which a boy might make with his first box of water-colours, but I had to agree with him as he pointed out the
18 Timehri.
blue of the sky and green of the forest. In some things he was almost childish, in fact, I would not cool his enthusiasm in any way because I liked to hear him dilate on the good points. It was taken to the then Curator of the Museum as an exhibit for the Edinburgh Forestry Exhibi- tion and refused, as might be expected. Possibly, however, the refusal - was given in a way that caused offence for Mr, Pieters implied that Provi- dence did not allow the insult to remain unpunished. This is about- the only discord in the book and I willnot dwell upon it; the gentleman died because he would not accept the picture !
Descriptive writing, like drawing, was not within his power, but we can find much to admire in the bits of loving and sympathetic talk, even though it is somewhat supercilious at times. I wonder what the Indian | would have said of his Catechist could he have written such a book.
The little Indian children his pupils, struck him at once as different from those he had seen in town. The ‘innocence of an Indian’s wild- wood” affected him pleasantly and I may presume that the glamour of the forest tinged him with some of the ideas shown in his book. The children were lovable :—
‘Their beauty did not bewitch me, O no !”
“Tis true Ann was fat. Johannah had quite an aristocratic gait, Elizabeth was charming. Mary was like a flower, mild, yet sending forth its fragrance, and made me think at once of the Four O’clocks that in my youthful days, grew near my father’s gate-post. Little Clairmont’s (littlest of all) marble-worded speech was truly funny, and used to make me laugh and like him more on this cause. Henrietta, with soft silent footsteps, appeared to dance whenever she walked.
“T really liked—or did love them; for I love innocence more than beauty, I love virtue more than vice, and I really thought what pretty angels these Indian children may be.”
We can hardly think of Mr. Pieters as a schoolmaster of the average type, flogging such pretty children, and from what I saw of him I should say he would not ‘hurt a fly.” In fact, he said punishment was out of thought. He loved them and we can see that they must have loved him for Johannah :—
“ Brought the most fortunate of the games on which her brother's or father’s gun had failed to place the proper shot, or bullet, and with her dill-dill-like ducking style, often sometimes came rushing towards me, bearing a young Accourie or Labba, and saying to me—‘ Look seh, mamma sen’ it seh.’”
In spite of the fact that the writer does not quite say what he means he brings before us a picture which is not like the daub he wanted to send to Edinburgh. Could some real artist have been present to paint the little Indian girl of six bringing a labba almost as big as herself and handing it to her teacher, something like a picture would have resulted.
His word-pictures are really pretty, e.g., the children—“ were always like pretty yellow young Muscovy ducks ; so pretty, yellow and clean, as if possessed of soft downy feathers.”
Stages of Progress. 19
Of course he moralises a little on Bible lines, but this is not too prominent. There is so much in little and it is so varied as to be almost bewildering. There is no sequence or arrangement of ideas but every- where we can pick out little gems that are pleasing to our fancies as they probably were to his. There are pictures of the crew of his corial worth noting ; they were generally such little boys as I have myself had to paddle light bateaux up the- Demerara creeks :-—.
“ The little boys did pull very eagerly and it was not until I got on the ‘ Hill-foot’ then did I find out that their constant quick strokes all along to that Hill were only brought forth by the volvings of their souls or hearts, on their dainties in those parts—deer meat and fresh-fish.”
They duly got tothe Hill and were prov'led with meat and bread ; like Indian children in general they appeared as if starving and were ready to gorge themselves whenever they got an opportunity. This I
_ know to be true for I have seen them, but 1 never drew such a picture
as the following :—
“We allhad breakfast and ate it ; but my schoolboys although ac- customed to such meats, etc., ate as if they had never tasted meat.
“One greedy little fellow of about 7 or 8 years, on whose coun- tenance I could almost read his strange existence on the earth, kicked up a row when eating ; and was not satisfied with the last bite he got, after having got so many on plenty lumps of meats among his fellow school- mates.”
So Mr. Pieters gave the greedy boy part of his share. It may be suggested that primitive man was always hungry and when he had an opportunity would eat as much as possible because he might never again have such a chance.
Another pretty picture is brought before us as we read the following :—
“Let us now jump into boat with its 7 lads and 6 paddles, besides the big captain’s paddle. I acted captain’s part,
‘‘Qne or two years’ difference existed on the heads of the six lads who were to pull, and the idle Jittlest fellow about 5 or 6 years, was, of course, to remain idle with his broad half doubtful features, and large inquisitive eyes ; for he was part-owner, for the old mailboat belonged to his father,
“We all appeared to start with pleasing countenances. A brown fellow (not an Indian) grinned a sort of smile, with almost open mouth— yawning out laziness—and his closing lips of sunlight-painted-heat, as if beating from his proud little coloured heart (as such hearts do generally appear to beat) through similar signs and jealous symbols.” ;
‘Somehow or other, in spite of his queer modes of expression we can- not fail to see the happy disposition often found in the black man when we are not looking for faults. His explanation of the reason for en-
20 Timehrt.
couraging innocent pleasures was that he did not invent vain and mis- chievous things but found lessons in stones and voices in woods, His echo of the poet is not quite a repetition.
I could pick out more tit-bits, but these will probably be enough to — show the character of the little book. At first sight it might repel most people, but I saw something in it from the first and mentioned it to several people at different times. Two or three quotations in ‘‘ Guiana, British, Dutch and French,” interested one of the reviewers of that book, who wrongly thought I was poking fun atit. It is funny in places, and if read to a mixed audience, would no doubt make people laugh; in fact, it is enjoyable even to the average person. But I have already said enough and will conclude my study with Mr. Pieters’ iast words :---
‘‘ And as study is a weariness of the flesh and in writing of Books or Drawing, or making up of Books there may be such mistakes as may be placed within respectful brackets of forgetfulness, I ask the reader of this _ my hurry-scurry book to accept what’s good in this book, reject what you may suppose to be erroneous, and expect to read (D.V.) some yet more amusing tales or ‘stories’ in my second volume or book.”
It is almost a pity that he was not encouraged to go on with a second book, but unfortunately no one seemed to appreciate the first at its real value. Dear Theophilus! He died many years ago, and I lost sight of him, yet my memory can still recall his ingenuous conversation. I believe that he failed to pass as a schoolmaster, possibly he was too original for the examiners.
In searching for local talent I must give prominence to “ Quow,” Mr. -M: McTurk, whose fables and sketches are not only amusing for their talki-talki” but for humour as well. I cannot here quote more than will indicate his style; these few lines come from “O]’ Time Nagah,” wherein an attempt is made to depict his troubles since freedom came :—
‘Da free time dis? Now freedom come, He isn’t hab no house, no home:
He free fo’ true, go wa’k ‘pon dam,
But weh de bittle fo’ he nyam?
Bin ol’ time now da ’nadah ease.
He hab good bittle fo’ go wa’se,
Man ’kin an’ bone no bin a mix,
He hab he meat an’ fat betwix’,
He hroke-up ‘kin and magah figah, Ayou hab ha’t fo’ ol’ time nagah.”
There is a type of local pamphlets that shows up the old-fashioned schoolmaster, who formed his style from the essayists. The idea running through them is the choice of magniloquent language to make the reader admire the writing; in fact, to wonder what it means. The average schoolboy memorises without understanding and repeats a long string of paragraphs or verses that are meaningless. When therefore he tries to
Stages of Progress. 21
write he probably wants to “show-off” as he did on the platform when the school was breaking up. There is no originality in the materials, but possibly there may be in the arrangement; some are really amusing if not tiresome.
I have a pamphlet ‘‘ Guiana Dialogues,” 1906, which is possibly an extreme specimen of the use of fine words misunderstood. It is intended for children’s plays, and possibly some may have been acted in our vil- lages. A single extract will probably be enough to show its character ; a lover is begging for a kiss :—
“ Arthur (slow and pitiful)—Rebecca, thou earthly star of my life, thou whose fancy ranges no further than to mo, thou whose beauty can- not be paralleled by any existing human soul, thou whose presence cheers the burdened heart, and illuminates the darkest home, thou whose eyes foretell merriment, whose ways are ways of uprightness, did I not perish on the mighty deep? Sought wealth when death appeared whilst cross- ing the Kaieteur Falls? When also in the interior of Berbice, I fought with a tiger, and was taken helplessto the New Amsterdam Hospital, disfigured by the paws and teeth of the animal? Was it not for your happiness? Revoke your resolutions and come into my loving embrace, thou pride of my life, and give me the kiss I long for, come, come, my blue bells, come thou Guiana’s star, come, come, come.”
I wonder what idea of Kaieteur the writer had and what children could learn from such language.
In this connection it may be noted that the creole writer not only loves a long word but also a long sentence. In a printed lecture I noted that if was almost entirely a single paragraph, and when I was once con- sulted about a MS. story without stops or divisions the writer said all that sort of thing would be done by the printer. Poor printer! What a job he must have with his correspondence !
I once got a creole young man to repeat a speech given by himself at a wedding. Four young fellows listened with hands over their mouths until he finished and then the pent-up laughter burst forth in one glori- ous guffaw. Of course the speechifier joined in the applause and went off to tell how his grandiloquent string of words was appreciated by white men.
A characteristic of the gold-diggers and boatmen 1s their power of improvising and altering sailor’s chanties to suit the conditions of the moment. They have the faculty of keeping time but are wanting in har- mony and melody. Mr. John A. McMillan published in 1895 a “ Lecture on the Gold Industry” with some of the paddling chanties. There is not much decency in the printed copies, but as the songs are sung many people would call them shocking. One of the most popular, once known to every gold-digger is ‘‘ Potaro Coarse Gold.” /
22 Timehrs.
‘ When the spademan spade and the hoeman hoe, And the cullayman cullay, and the batelle tell, Our manager shout, Potaro gold, Potaro coarse, coarse gold.
Oh, Oh, blow Potaro blow
Oh, Oh, blow Potaro, blow
Ch, shilling ah lock ap story ;
Gold ah Massaruni ;
One shilling can’t buy my lober dress ; Oh, Oh, blow Potaro, blow,
Oh, Oh, blow Potaro, blow.”
Iam inclined to praise Mr. McMillan’s picture of what he calls the ‘¢ prettiest dreadful phenomenon” he had ever witnessed, a boat coming down the falls :—
“‘ Placing yourself at the foot of a ae fall thirty or forty feet in height you behold with admiration, in all its sublimity, a boat thirty or thirty-five feet in length, loaded to perfection, shooting with the double velocity of a railway, whilst the captain and bowman with equal swiftness administering their steering capabilities to keep clear of huge as well as diminutive rocks ; and the other hands, manager and all, bending on their paddles with all their might, when ona sudden it seems to be launched with all its beauty of splendour on the swiftest of flat watery sur- face. It is a sight enough to make your hair stand on end, or make an old man laugh or weep according to his idiosyncrasy.”
His picture of the evening gos sip of the gold camp is true to life :—
“What can you have to talk about? Let me remind you, these men — being bushmen, they may try to retaliate. They chatter sometimes about the last placer they worked on; the kind of manager, clerk, etc., they encountered ; the wages obtained; the days occupied on the river and from the landing to the interior ; the food they were fed on ; the number of days they spent in the bush; which and which feigned sick for some are low enough to do that sometimes; the last advance they took, and which and which rascally fellows walked off with ‘‘’vance’” ; whether they must work in harmony with this manager for this Company or to hum- bug the work and return to town. Some of these are plots, of course, and the dumb signs telegraphy is thrown into active play where it appeared unsafe to risk the use of viva voce communication. Tiger and other stories of kindred utility not infrequently very happily lend their charm none the less to the colonial coveted undertaking, giving warning to the eager ears to have the fire in continual blaze as a barrier agai’.st the quadrupedal and creeping invaders.” :
It is evident from these few examples that the creole is straiming to express his ideas and that he should be encouraged. We have seen pic- tures of boats in the rapids and perhaps been thrilled as we saw the strain- ing paddlers fighting for dear life; even the chanty tries to give us a picture :—
Stages of Progress. 23
* When the captain, starding on the stand Give his command to his men
Over danger, over danger
Over danger rocks and falls. ”
No wonder that they work and pray to save their lives; chanties are real prayers with work, laborare est orare.
That some of our people are beginning to wake up is shown by an ex- tract from ‘“‘ The Negro in British Guiana,” by Joseph N. Conway, 1907 :—
“Tf the negro in British Guiana has had to make grave efforts to reach thus far, those for his future are still graver. Nothing in the posi- tion of the race can remain in the inertia of rest, as having begun the ascent, halting, he will lose his momentum, and descend in obedience to the laws of gravitation.”
Slowly but steadily the creole is becoming a thinker and if he can read and think a little more instead of ‘‘resting” his progress will be certain though slow.
I have been told by Kuropeans that they can’t study here as in Eng- land, for they feel languid and the mosquitoes bother them. Anything beyond a light novel is tiring. Possibly much of this lassitude is due to errors in the seasoning period, when there is a craving for cool drinks and lounging in the gallery. Personally, I have found that walking induces thinking and that being carrie! in a vehicle disposes to the sort of do- nothing which some appear to enjoy. There is room for good work here ; the creole should rouse himself and not let outsiders do everything.
The reader must excuse my boring him with a touch of my philosophy of progress. It appears as if everything is open to improvement, but no one can tell what can be done until he tries. Even a failure does not necessarily mean that all ways of success are blocked, for no one can declare that he has tried everyone. To get on we must have liberty and opportunity, it follows therefore that those who say there is only one way of doing a thing, whether developing a country or writingja story, are putting stumbling blocks in our path. Progressive continuity is the principle of development ; we improve things already existing, but we must take risks. Openings should be given where possible ; if Gravesande had not opened up Demerara it might have been like Berbice, and if Messrs. Thomson and Jardine had not opened their papers to the strain-
ings of the creole mind we should hardly have been able to see that local
talent exists and can be developed. There were impediments in the way of publishing magazines and pamphlets forty yearsago, but when these were overcome the Churches began to publish their organs and other Societies woke up with “ The Young Man,” “ The Guide,” “ The Philatelic Journal,” ‘The Commercial Review” as well as “ Timehri” and “The West Indian Quarterly.” All these gave desirable openings for the coming forth of a Guiana literature, but I am afraid that the opening up of the oountry will continually be obstructed by RED TAPE.
PROGRESS IN NEW AMSTERDAM.
By irs Town CLERK.
From the listless repose of the place and the peculiar character of its people whe are descendants from the original Dutch settlers, this sequestered den has long been known by the name of the Sleepy Hollow.—Irving,
I have been asked to write something about New Amsterdam, in- dicative of its progress. Hard is the task, for having lived in the town for the past seven years, I cannot find true perspective, and movements and changes which should excite the interest and engage the attention of the historian might quite easily escape the notice of the dweller within the gates.
Agreeably with the shifting scenes of life, unpalatable though the fact may be to oldsters, New Amsterdam, once the capital of Berbice, has fallen from its high estate, a circumstance that is most acutely felt by praisers of the past, who, by a well-known psychological twist, are un- willing to admit that the times they now live in are better than those that were. Nor will they who exalt the past at the expense of the pre- sent be weaned from their conservatism, in view of res angustae expe- rienced in many a home through the quaint turns in the social drama which have been superinduced by war conditions, these being responsible for that unpicturesque phenomenon of the rich growing richer and the poor growing poorer. There is no doubt that the merging of Berbice with the united colony of Demerara and Essequebo stripped the capital of much of its independence and territorial consequence—a process that until lately has been going on with a corrosive effect on the prestige and dignity of the town. Gone is the resident judge; gone is the Treasury; | gone is the Alms House—swept away by a sudden flood of economical zeal on the part of the central Government which might have been for- given its iconoclasm if uniformity, continuity and equity had marked its policy of retrenchment. In the councils of the State the voice of no resi- dent Berbician or of any Berbician at all is heard; and thereat young - Berbice stands mutely by, as if for all the world it confesses that there are better waters than the waters of Abana and Pharpar.
Though for a variety of reasons—and here may be mentioned the absence of a port and the presence of a silted harbour—the kinetic energy of the town, which has not yet caught the expression of exhaustion, is not so pronounced as that of the metropolis, some measure of progress stands to be recorded to the credit of the former. In such a country as British Guiana, population is a matter of first importance, for it precedes and accompanies progress. During the past twenty-five years the population of New Amsterdam has moved up to 8,400 souls, an increase of about, eight per cent. This, apparently, is a poor achievement, but not so un- appreciable when it is recalled that the population of the whole colony has not advanced at a greater pace. A railway with a river connects the twocentres. This connection, meant for an abridgment of distances and
Progress 1n New Amsterdam. 25
the harbinger of great things, has had the effect of making the town more of an appanage to the city, and accordingly has weakened its in- dependence, while challenging its pristine glory as a separate entity. Thus has it come to pass that Georgetown regards New Amsterdam as, in
_ the quaint conceit of Lamb, an irrelevant thing, an impertinent corres-
pondency, a Mordecai in its gate, a fly in its ointment—a poor relation. A flood of progress is more easily visible ina town than in the country, and whether or not an urban environment is opposed to man’s fundamen- tal instincts, there is this peculiarity about New Amsterdam thatit has a rural air, an aspect of Nature not without its effect on the mentality of the townsfolk, ‘There is a closer correspondence, as it were, between the town mouse and the country mouse, and so there is no need for the former to ask of the latter Quid te juvat, amice, Praerupti nemoris patientem vivere dorso ?
The rural air referred to, that is, its umbratile characteristic, is less noticeable than it was, say, a decade ago. Though malaria has not yet vanished, the baneful attentions of mali culices are less pronounced ; mosquito invasions are far fewer than before ; sand-flies are now a mere memory ; the sylvan aspect of the town is disappearing. This, to be sure, makes for improved health—to the detriment of the coup d’ceil from
_ the point of view of the artist, the lover of Nature unadorned. With
the best intentions, some of the townsfolk revel in the occupation of maligning the health of their own hearth, in blissful ignorance of the fact that the New Amsterdam death-rate is lower than that of the city. Typhoid is unknown except when imported ; and as there is less over- crowding than in the city, fewer victims are claimed by Tuberculosis. And to the end that the wings of this dread scourge should be clipped, there has been established a branch of the Society for the Prevention and Treatment of Tuberculosis. It is doinz valuable work, for its officers and staff are nothing if mot zealous and tactful, and moreover have material of the pliant order to deal with, that is, folks who appreciate the value of the beneficent objective in view, and accordingly do not kick at domiciliary visits, or translate kindly attentions as officious intrusions.
The town has natural advantages which keep off disease. A com- parison as to physique between the lower orders of the city and town is all in favour of the town. This is most noticeable. Those in New Amsterdam are better fed, albeit they appear to be more listless. In their vocabulary there is no such word as hurry. They take their
ambulatory exercises with inexorable decorousness. The drainage of
the town is easy, and so, unlike the case of Georgetown, spring-tides
' bring no discomfort with them. The roads are kept in good order, an
achievement all the more creditable when it is learned that Whereas some fifteen years ago from $8,000 to $10,000 a year used to be voted for their upkeep, asum of only about $6,000 is made to suffice nowadays. And be it remembered that the traffic is sensibly heavier.
*
26 Timehri.
New Amsterdam is in a transition stage, passing on from the green ear to the full ear, probably on its return journey to the position it once occupied in the social and economic hierarchy. Perhaps there was a time when the laxity of its movement indicated the absence of objective, but the process of metamorphosis is being hastened by war’s aftermath. We see this more particularly in the building operations that have been going on for the past eighteen months. One must carry his memory back many years to recall activities of this kind. Since the fall of 1918, when the Municipal Building By-laws came into force, never a month has passed but that building “notices” have been sent into the Council. And this in spite of the high cost of building materials and of labour. Inflated money is being exchanged for price-inflated commodities. Tradesmen who aforetime could hardly count upon more than four months of employment, and broken at that, during the year, find them- selves working five days in a week. No longer for tbem are the hungry > months of Ramazan. In other departments, too, it may beseen that the - social temperature is rising; and one could wish that there will be no slipping down of the mercury. Now should the occasion be grasped by the roots of its hair ; and if measures of consolidation be prudently gone about, New Amsterdam may yet regain some at least of its erst position of social puissance. At the present time the town cannot be charged with the habit of decumbency. It is all life and commerce, and it is making a move onin the bustling way. Fora long time it has not been accus- tomed to this fret and fever, but maybe it will, sooner or later, corre- spond to the changed environment.
Seven years ago, there were some two dozen cabs about the town. There are now oaly two, the comfortable and mobile motor car having caused the remainder to evanesce. Joy rides are common, and the East Indian is not the least enthusiastic of the joy-riders—a preg- nant sign for the _ social -philosopher. The churches have not diminished in number, the threat of the withdrawal of State-aid notwithstanding. The enigma of the grave and the riddle of after-life will ever inflame the imagination and excite the curiosity of mere man. There are no carillons, but the music (or the nuisance) of the bells subsists or rather persists; and as there are no fewer than eight churches, within a radius of some five hundred acres, having bells and ringing bells, one can imagine what goes on at times, and be sure that it is not thus that melody is foretold.
Quot vivos vocant, mortuos plangunt, fulgura frangunt.
Besides churches, there are chapels and conventicles and street-corner gatherings, these latter being illuminated by grace of naphtha and the nasal exhortations of the modern Stiggins. This much he does: he keeps people. out of harm’s way but in the way of the traflic, and the policeman does not say him nay.
The town derives its economic sustenance from the extractive industries which concern themselves with the cultivation and manufacture
Progress in New Amsterdam. 7
of sugar, the cultivation of rice, and the winning of mimusops globosa. That is, it is these industries which actas feeders. The contributions to the Wages Fund made by the balata industry are markedly attenuated in comparison with times past, yet if this industry fell to pieces, the hurt to the town would be at once visible. Some little business, probably destined to grow in volume, is done in the way of converting paddy into rice, the most nutritive of the cerealia, and a food which is eaten by all classes of the community—a unique circumstance. Rice is now being cultivated in the environs, and if success attend the adventure, the town cannot choose but benefit therefrom. Also will it materially benefit if riverine industrial activities were more in evidence. The river people are said to be more studious of their ease than those of the creek (Canje river) inhabitants, and the indictment may be true, for much more could be done with ground provisions and fruit. For the latter, dependence is being had on the industry of the villagers on the east coast of Demerara. |
The enterprise of the New Amsterdam Town Council is seen in its lighting service. Some two decades ago there was a tremendous saltation from oil lamps to electric Jighting. The adventure has passed through sore travail, and it is gratifying to be able to record the fact that there are evidences seeming to indicate a surcease from losses and -trepidations. Last year the enterprise showed a frofit of an appreciable sum ; and of late the plant has been giving less trouble and anxiety than before. The occasional failure of the light brings home to users and the general
_- publicits great convenience and value. Moreover, it is not known to
many that the light is being supplied at a cost much smaller than com- mercial enterprise would venture upon. In this regard alone the Municipality has conferred an inestimable boon on dwellers within the gates. There is promise of all-round improvement in matters Municipal.
_ An amalgamation scheme is being launched. The Water and Electricity
Works may in due course be no longer separate entities, and in this way large economies are confidently anticipated. It is sincerely to be hoped that all will go well in this connection ; for if not, then there may be a violent throw back into the ‘‘ dark backward and abysm of time.”
It is rather remarkable—and I cannot help saying it is a reproach— that in the good old days of New Amsterdam, the leaders of men did not seem to appreciate the value of secondary education within its own gates, Maybe they had other piscatorial delicacies to fry ; maybe other objects obsessed them. Be that as it may, New Amsterdam can now boast of a high school, the Berbice High School, to wit. It has been founded with
_ the capital and by the beneficence of the Canadian Mission. The school
was opened in September, 1916, and in the first term there was a roll-call
of twenty-seven pupils. This number has more than doubled, and com- _ pares very favourable with the attendance at the Queen’s College of
British Guiana. The curriculum includes regular work up to the stand- ard required for the senior Cambridge Local Examinations. There is also manual training, including a class for the training of Hast Indian
28 Timehra.
boys for the primary school-teachers’ examination. The building has been partly finished at a cost of $2,800; and it has a striking appear- ance near the junction of Fort and North Roads. It will be completed this year, and to it will be added, it is contemplated, a small laboratory. A residence for the headmaster is to be built, and already there are two dormitories and a work-shop. The school is doing good, solid work, and is destined to do even better when there is heartier co-operation on the part of the public upon whom the boon has not yet been borne in. Iam to add that the existence of this seminary has given a filip to the studious and the ambitious. Here and there night classes have leaped into existence, and coaches have sprung up from where one does not know, and boasting of a proficiency that may be but the fiction of the imagination.
In dress New Amsterdam is not behind hand. Among the young men that finicking coxcombry which is on exhibition on the Sea Wall and the public gardens of the city, is not seen in such vulgar kind and pro- fusion. But as to the daughters of Eve, they meekly and joyously sub- mit to the tyranny of fashion. In every other street a dressmaker is to be found, and they know their business, or rather, in view of the fine figures they have to deal with, they do not find their business a task— save.or the tedium of stitch, stitch, stitch. Females of all classes dress well and decorously. The “loud” does not obtrude. Girls emerge from school into womanhood wearing the same length of dress. When they are “keeping company” the dress is lowered and the hair is “ put up.” There is no guessing conjugal conditions by skirt length; and I have chanced upon some grandmothers who affect the syncopated skirt—in the chimerical hope, I conceive, that Fashion may distract the attention and stay the hand of Time in its natural occupation of writing wrinkles !
.
SOME EXAMPLES OF INDIAN MIMICRY, FRAUD AND IMPOSTURE.
COMPILED BY WALTER E. ROTH.
When in residence at Sandringham, Her Gracious Majesty happens to visit her wondrously-appointed aviaries and calls her feathered song- sters with a “‘ tweet-tweet !” it is somewhat hard to realise that she is but obeying the same hereditary instinct that prompts the lowest savage in her realm to secure the wherewithal to satisfy the cravings of his hungry stomach. Decoy-calls are but one of the many forms of mimicry, fraud and imposture employed by him to lure the winged denizen of the forest to its doom. wh
Any form of imitation and pretence practised by man to the dis- advantage of lower animals may be classed under Mimicry: when the object in view is to the detriment of his fellow-creatures it is recognised under the somewhat unpleasant terms of Fraud and Imposture, In the latter case, however, an additional and higher sense has to be outwitted to bring about successful results for with the gradual development of more advanced reasoning powers in both parties, the would-be hunter has now to play upon his quarry’s sense of proportion, comparison and credibility. Church and State, the classes and the masses, the sharps ‘and flats, the rooks and pigeons all have a common source of origin, a -foundation-stone of mimicry and pretence, however upright, however base, the superstructure, Mimicry, fraud and imposture are but the natural development of one and the same guiding instinct that has had its share in making man what he is, to survive in the struggle for existence, and during the recent Armageddon, under the term of Camou- flage, mystery ships, and other contrivances, helping in a large measure to pave the way to yictory. :
Mimicry, it must be remembered, is only harmful when applied to the detriment of others ; it may prove an important educational force, and on occasion may constitute sources of pleasure and enjoyment not only to the artist who practises it, but even to the model practised upon. It provides in a sense the humour which is common to every Indian. If a stranger arrives among them, curiosity compels the neighbouring resi- | dents to come and make comparison between him and themselves. With sharp and critical gaze the Indian observes his demeanour, his every move- ment, listens to his very word, and now and again casts a significant side-glance at his friends standing around ; nothing escapes him, but he betrays nought of the triumph which he already inwardly experiences, Accompanied by his mates, he returns to his quarters where, bubbling over with fun, judgment is passed upon the stranger in the most biting satire. The latter’s portrait is sketched : his nose is as long as a tapir’s, he has a mouth like an alligator, and bolts his food like a tiger ; his legs are as ugly and lean asa crane’s, and his belly is as shrivelled as a mon- ©
30 Timehn.
key’s. After Schomburgk’s party had spent their first few weeks among the Makusis, each of them got anick-name with which they distinguished one from another: Mr. Fryer, on account of his size and long feet, was Jabiru ; Mr. Goodall, who often read the prayers at service, was Domini; Stockle, owing to his fair hair which seemed specially ridiculous to them, was Howler-monkey; Tiedge, with his long nose, was Tapir; whilst Schomburgk, owing to his being always engaged in botanising, was ~ Yariko-papa, i.e., Father of the Flowers. Justas a stranger gets a nick- name, so does an Indian with any peculiarity or deformity: long-hair, long-head, pointed-nose, thick-neck ; and crook-leg. If anyone is good at climbing he is called tiger-cat ; if he can run well he is known as deer, arrow, or lightning. As with the men so with the women: we find such terms as fat-leg, lumpy, big belly, red-lip, squint eye, and curly.
Many Indian games and amusements afford proof of the excellence with which the antics of animals can be imitated; as a matter of fact many of them are named after the particular beast or bird represented, . and are of wide distribution. I have thus witnessed the Bimitti or hum- ming-bird dance performed by Akawais on the Demerara, and by Areku- nas at Roraima. The young chick cackles as the old cock crows and many an evening did I spend at Karikaparu, a village about a week’s walk from Roraima, watching the actions of a company of young boys playing pantomime games after dusk had set in. One which particularly took my fancy was that of ‘‘ jaguar” where two youths played the part of King of the Forest, each stalking on his two hands and one foot, with the other foot raised and extended to represent a tai]. As the rest of the perform- ers circled in Indian file around the two central figures all howling and singing, the latter would prowl around and behind the last of the line, suddenly spring upon, and drag him captive to their den a few yards away outside the circle where he would lie stiff and stark while the jaguars jumped over his dead corpse. The whole scene would then be repeated and another victim seized, until all and every boy in the circle was brought captive to the lair, and jumped over, when the final feasting on the slaughtered bodies would be represented in every detail from the hacking of the flesh to the grinding of the bones. The idea of jumping over the bodies is indicative of death, and is practised at Makusi funerals. By the way, a whole chapter could be written over this custom of jump- ing the dead, a custom of which traces are still found in similar savage as well asin more advanced races. I once had a gruesome experience in the Never-Never of Western Queensland at seeing a woman speared for thoughtlessly stepping over her prostrate husband to reach the fire. ‘‘ She can walk over me when I am dead, but not while I am alive,” was the only explanation that the brute could offer for his action. We our- selves have remnants of a somewhat similar belief, when feeling as if someone were “ walkiug over our grave.” wis
Let us now consider some examples of mimicry practised by the Indian to secure his daily food, and see how far the victim’s sense of
Some Examples of Indian Mimicry, Fraud and Imposture. 31
sound can be played upon. The surprise I experienced on first learning how fish can be attracted by sound has been shared by other observers, for rt certainly was a canon for successtul angling on any streams in the Homeland that silence was golden and that even the slightest noise or ripple on the water was prejudicial to a catch. Here in the Guiana creeks on the other hand, itis of advantage every now and again to lash the water with the rod because, if fish are present at all, they will very probably rise to the occasion and, provided the bait be suitable, will take the hook. The Indian explains this phenomenon on the ground that by splashing the surface he mimics the falling into the water of ripened seeds, certain kinds of which are eagerly swallowed by many kinds of fish. The yarran is undoubtedly lured by a sort of whistle which the Caribs are particularly adept at practising. Only last September I was fishing on a tributary of the Barima and could catch nothing, when the Carib accompanying me whistled a short plaintive staccato note, and repeated it some six or seven times, when sure exough a couple of large yarrau suddenly put in an appearance. In this case I must certainly admit my ignorance of what the decoy sound was intended to convey, if indeed it is a case of mimicry at all. It is the imitation of bird-calls however, that the Indians have developed almost into a fine art, and it is little matter for surprise that so large a number of names indicative of birds should be onomatopeie, e.g., Quest-ce-que-dit, hanaqua, duraquarra, and kuau. ‘To so truthful a pitch can the mimicry be carried that if not infrequently hap- pens that the hunter may be deceived even by his fellow “ matti,” the one calling, and the other answering, The accuri is a mammal that can also be lured to destruction by calling and a case is known to have occurred on the Demerara River where the Indian mimicked the call so accurately that a tiger-cat in the vicinity, being itself deceived, sprang upon his back, where the resulting scars remained for long after. In the pairing season it is acommon trick on the Barima and Kaituma Rivers to imitate the call of the tapir and so bring it within range of bow and arrow. The deer is similarly called in the open when the hunter must of course hide his presence more or less by means of a bundle of Curatella bush held in front of him. As the savannah has but little or hardly any scrub along which the Indian can sneak towards the animal, it is extremely interesting to watch him on the chase. As soon as the creature is noticed and bends down to graze he is on the move, ereeps forward like a cat, keeping the animal constantly in view however, and instantly remains as immovable as a statue when it raises its head again. Nothing can tire his patience in thus approaching within arrow or gun-shot, even should two or three hours be necessary for the purpose, and when about 100 paces close to the inoffensive creature, the call of the buck is imitated by him in the cleverest manner. The deer is all _ attention, stamps its forefeet, and whether or not owing to some deficiency in keenness of sight or scent, it at any rate commences circling round the hunter in narrower and varrower turns until, when within twenty paces, it falls a sure victim to the gun or more certain arrow.
32 Timehri.
With nocturnal animals the sudden and unexpected appearance of daylight mimicked by torch or lamp may prove the creature’s undoing : at any rate, this is the explanation given by the Indians to account for the success met with by the exercise of such methods. A torch at night will bring certain fish within reach of gun or cutlass—the popular belief is that they are attracted out of curiosity, the Indian view being that they are fooled into believing that day has dawned. So with the laba, both opinions are current, and as the method here employed is comparatively recent and hitherto undescribed, a short account of it may not prove out of place. The stranger visiting the upper Demerara for the first time would probably be surprised at seeing the regular Bull’s eye lantern of the London “ Bobby ” in every little timber-grant that he might visit, and even in Indian camps also. These lanterns or ‘“‘shoolers”’ are imported and sold expressly for laba hunting. Going up the higher reaches of the Karuabaru one day, I noticed numerous laba tracks along the banks. So that evening I suggested that two of my men should try and secure a specimen, I accompanying them, After supper and before the moon rose the three of us set out in a corial: the man with the gun and lamp in the bow, I amidship, and the steersman in the stern. The latter and I looked after the paddling, the bowman holding his gun in one hand, and flashing the lantern along the banks with the other. We drifted noise- | lessly down, only using the paddles to keep the vessel in the middle of the stream. It was a weird sensation—gliding through the ink-black forest on an equally dark current with only the ever shifting circle of light from the lantern to guide us. Suddenly, and just ahead, a sound was heard like the grinding of teeth. The bowman raised the gun to his shoulder and steadied it with his left which still held the lantern. The rays shone along the barrel, and ‘following them ‘to the bank I got a glimpse of two small red lights as the feeding laba raised its head to the lamp. The next moment, with a flash of fireand an awful row the gun went off, and the three of us had all we could do to prevent the corial capsizing with the recoil. Going ashore we found the sleek brown and white spotted carcass of a full-grown laba lying across the heap of fallen palm seeds on which it had been feeding.
Other cases there are, where the hunter will hide his presence with grass or leaf, and thus through the sense of sight give his quarry a false sense of security. A tussock of matted grass floating along with the stream need give no cause for suspicion to a brace of ducks further down. Hidden in, and surrounded by, this apparently innocent looking wrack, however, is the head of an Indian who, with body submerged, and barely a ripple on the surface is gingerly guiding himself to the required spot, where, seizing bird after bird from below, he tucks them inte his waist belt. Just as harmless in appearance as the floating tussocks were the ambush-shelters built by the Makusis towards the end of the wet season on the recently formed Jakes in the neighbourhood of Mapeima village in the Canuku Ranges : in these oval little structures, formed of a framework covered with leafy bush rising from 4 to 5 feet above the surface of the
Some Examples of Indian Mimicry, Fraud and Imposture. 33
water, the Indians were accustomed to hide themselves and shoot with blow-guns or fire-arms the various birds that were either standing along the banks or wading around in the water.
In those rare circumstances where the bird call does not lend itself to imitation, the bird itself may be caught and assist the Indian in securing
_ others : the captive creature mimics a free one. Decoys are thus made
use of as in the case of grass-birds and other small members of the feathered race. Among the Arekuna Indians on the Caco River, in the far hinterland, certain small parrots of the Pionus species used to be easily eaught by specimens of the same bird confined in a basket. The employ- ment of decoys is common throughout most of the races of mankind and examples are readily called to mind from other countries of elephants, horses, cattle and sheep being specially trained for the purpose. A similar idea has left its trace in the trapping of one’s fellow men. More than one scientific expedition exploring the Amazon basin even within recent years has been wiped out to a man through the agency of decoy women sent in amongst them-for the purpose by local Indians. The latter can hardly be
blamed, for even in the late war, both the enemy and the allies practised
ay
similar tactics; it has even been asserted that General Allenby’s success in Palestine wera in no small measure due to information supplied by an Englishwoman in the German lines who, unfortunately, later on suffered the supreme penalty for her patriotism.
While there are thus many examples forthcoming of the Indian’s powers of mimicry leading to the animal’s undoing through the senses of sight and sound, I have learnt of none here that is exercised by smell. At this I am not surprised for I know of but one case, which I have already recorded from Australia, in connection with the Kangaroo, an animal that is far keener scented than our big Guiana deer and can never be stalked from the windward. Now, on occasion, the Queensland aboriginal will succeed in turning the beast into his own direction by
previously fixing a spear or two along the pathway it is likely to pursue
on its way to water, such weapons having been previously moistened with the sweat derived from his armpits and thighs, a scent which the creature knows only too well to avoid: it is a case of an inanimate object being made to imitate the presence of a human being. :
In searching the various records there is a notable prominence of mimicry applied to the detriment of one’s fellow creatures, 2.e, cases of
fraud and imposture. In the olden days, the wants of the Indian were
few, the comforts of a higher civilisation unknown, each individual had his own particular weapons and implements that he made himself; there was
- nocause for envy, no reason for fraud or strife. As usual, the only trouble _ was woman, who was either purchased, stolen, captured, or fought for. _ Another but occasional cause for discord was the status of the chief and
_the medicine-man, offices often held in combination ; the latter however,
like the priesthood in more advanced countries was a close corporation, jealously guarded, to which admittance was only allowed after years of
34 Timehri.
hard training and the performance of a series of painful ordeals. Radical
changes however took place upon the arrival of the European, and with
him the introduction of fire-arms, spirits, the distribution of articles of trade, the wearing of clothes, and the institution of slavery. The Indian envied the white man, his skin, his possessions, his comforts, and his powers : his outlook upon life became enlarged, his ambitions were fired in wrong directions, and practically everything that had been previously regarded as beyond his reach and as a luxury, now became regarded and envied as a necessary. The real secret was that the Indian did not come into contact with the right kind of white man. In apeing his low-caste European and African model to perfection, the Indian became nature’s beast instead of nature’s gentleman. For civilization to prove beneficial it must be practised by the best of examples, and introduced progres- sively, not irruptively, truths which seem to have been woefully ignored by the Imperial as well as many Colonial Governments in their well- intentioned measures for the amelioration and preservation of the native races. Schomburgk struck the right note when he penned the follow- ing :— During my sojourn among these primitive people it struck me very forcibly that it all depends upon the European as to what he is going to make of them. The largest portion of them had never yet and, with few exceptions, had only occasionally met with Europeans. Heart and
head still remained completely in childish harmony. Treat such an In-
dian as a friend so as to let him feel through intercourse with you that —
he is of the same flesh and blood that he honours and respects in your- self. Do not budge a single hair’s breadth from the truth; do not be guilty of any weaknesses he may feel inclined to commit; be circumspect in everything you do; do not repulse his friendly advances, however hard
it may often prove, with severity or false pride; share his innocent
pleasures ; let him see that you sympathise with his troubles and -with his sorrows, and truly you will get on better with these folk than with the outwardly brilliant companionship of Europe. Morality and virtue need not be brought from civilized HEurope—Indians have a far more tender regard for them than we have.” In pondering over this memorable pas- sage in the great traveller's story of his journeys in Guiana, I find great - eonsolation in knowing that though.the principle which governed my efforts on behalf of the North Queensland aboriginals could not be carried out in its entirety, owing to the scarcity of first-class upright conscientious missionary men and women, willing to sacrifice their lives for the benefit of the savage. | strained every point to secure immense Reserves where the natives are confined, where fire-arms, trade, clothes, and Europeans are not permitted, with the result that the race is allowed to work out its own destiny and suffered to live and die in peace.
Perhaps the earliest reliable account to hand of fraud and imposture practised upon Europeans by what were now sophisticated Indians is con- nected with Mahanarva, the celebrated Carib Cazike who, as late as 1810, put the whole colony into a state of consternation and excitement. It was in this year that Mahanarva, now so notorious, came down the Esse-
i ew
Some Examples of Indian Mimicry, Fraud and Imposture. 35
quibo to Demerara, along with several of his dependents to pay the Gov-
ernor a visit, and struck a note of alarm throughout the whole colony by his account of the extent of his tribe and the “unbridled courage of his innumerable warriors. The wily Indian’s plans answered admirably. The absolute ignorance of the interior of Guiana, and the dread of the depredations of the Caribs, whom the colonists had learnt to recog- nise as the most dangerous enemy to their progress, caused the Court of Policy to accept his empty brag as the truth, and to agree willingly to the conditions offered them by him to keep his wild hordes at peace with the Colony. As a matter of fact, Mahanarva punctually obeyed the invitation that was given him on his departure to return the following year and fetch the stipulated tribute again. The enhanced accounts of his power, to which he gave expression on his second visit, induced the Governor to send a Commission to the country of this proud and mighty Cazike, and satisfy itself by direct enquiry as to his alleged influence. At the head of the expedition which, at the same time, was to go up the Rupununi to Fort San Joaquim and enter into negotiations with the Commandant concerning trade on the Rio Branco, was Dr. Hancock, a physician practising in Georgetown. These were the English and Dutch colonists who visited the interior of British Guiana, and of whom Alexander von Humboldt makes mention in his Travels. The expedition fortunately afforded results quite different from what were feared. Mahanarva and his mighty crowd sank down to the level that they really were; gentlemen had allowed themselves to be fooled by a savage. The ‘‘Observations on Guiana” published by Dr. Hancock gave the first information concerning the interior of the country.
The Amazons, the Golden City of Manoa, and similar Guiana fables hardly come under the category of fraud and imposture, because the “Indians were as firmly convinced of their actuality, as the foreign filibusters themselves.
In the early forties Schomburgk was the victim of a curious trick played upon him by certain local Indians at ‘‘ Our Village,” his depdt on the Kukenaam. ‘The latter were very keen on several of his articles of trade and yet there was nothing more in the animal world that the illustrious traveller did not already possess. All bird-skins that they offered him for a comb or fora knife had to be refused, as he already possessed them-in larger quantity than necssary. They finally brought him birds with the most beautiful play of colours which the hunters wanted to make out they had shot in a distant mountain valley. - The wondrously lovely creatures belonged to the genus Tanagra or Pipra. On this particular occasion they obtained even more than they asked for because Schomburgk now believed himself in possession of new species. There was no doubt about its being a Tanagra when all of a sudden, on a more careful comparison of the feathers, it seemed to have a curious familiar appearance and Schomburgk recognised that, instead of something new, he had got hold of a fake put together with a skill so
36 Timenri.
extraordinary that not even a Chinaman, as he says, would have been ashamed of it. The Tanagra had been doctored with all the kinds of Pipra and Euphone that were to be found locally, and so transformed into this extremely beautiful specimen. The same thing had been done with some Pipra and Fringilla skins. He readily forgave them this masterly deception, on the ground that they believed that the skirs they had tampered with must have the sume value to him as the other ones.
During the spring of 1864, Appun, another traveller whom we should also be grateful for a knowledge of our country, barely escaped with his life as the result of a conspiracy hatched against him by Wapi- sianas on the upper Takutu to cover their theft of his goods having clandestinely hacked the warp attached to the boat conveying all his and provisions, and hidden the vessel, they reported its loss as having been sunk over the Falls. |
Even at the present day in trading with the European, African or Chinese, the Indian will often succeed in getting the better of his pur- chaser by what practically amounts to fraud. For instance, there is a proper workmanlike method of plaiting the sifter and squeezer used in the preparation of cassava, so asto ensure not only extra strength but greater durability : the difference in the plait not being readily distin- guishable, the Indian can hardly be blamed for keeping the better articles for his own use, and putting the Brummagen ones on the market.
Most interesting of all, however, are the notable frauds and impostures that have been practised by Indians upon Indians. The least harmful in its consequences of the three examples I propose quoting is that reported by Missionary Brett, in 1845, of an Indian who, pretending to be “the Lord,” went into the interior with some deluded followers, and established himself in the upper part of the Mazaruni. From this distant spot, he sent emissaries into the neighbourhood of all the Missions calling on the Indians to quit their homes and provision fields and go to him. They were told that they should possess lands which would yield a large crop of cassava froma single stick and various other absurdities very alluring to the indolent Indian. These tales joined to threats of horrible destruction which should come upon all who refused to go, had their influence on the minds of many and lured them away. The movement commenced with the Akawais near the Essequibo who had been observed providing them- selves with fire-arms for some time before they set out. They were anxious to get the Caribs to join them, and hundreds of Indians of different tribes went from all parts of the country—many even from the Moruca and Pomeroon—“ to see God” as they termed it, some of whom perished from sickness, and others found themselves in a state of destitution when they reached the spot. In the more remote districts some settlements were completely deserted. The inhabitants of others had been part of the way, and then returned famished and ashamed. The leading facts of the strange occurrence were said to have been well
Some Examples of Indian Mimicry, Fraud and Imposture. 37
authenticated|by other evidence. I myself, however, am very much inclined to the opinion that what came to Brett’s ears was but a-whisper of the horrors that had been perpetrated just about the same time in the neighbourhood of Mount Roraima and which had been paralleled in the Brazils only a few years before
The following is an account of what tock place in the Presidency according to an official report dated 25.5.1838 from Comarca as Flores, the original of course being in Portuguese. “It is now more than two years ago that a man by the name of Joao Antonio, living at Pedra Bonita which lies about 20 miles distant from this township, surrounded by forest and close to two huge rocks, called the inhabitants together and told them that enclosed in these crags was an enchanted Kingdom of which he proposed to break the spell, and that as soon as this was done King Don Sebastian would appear at the head of a large army. He thereupon busied himself clearing up the spot until November of last year when, at the bidding of the Missionary Francisco José Correa de Albuquerque he removed to the desert region of Inhamon, whence he despatched an individual Joao Pereira, who, on his arrival in Pedra Bonita proclaimed himself King, and filled the minds of the people with all sorts of superstitions. He told them that in order to restore the Kingdom it was necessary to sacrifice anumber of men, women and children, who, in a few days’ time would rise again and then remain immortal, that great riches would be distributed among all classes and that all those of a blacker, especially darker, colour would on a sudden become white like Europeans. He thus managed to obtain numerous adherents to carry out his evil orders and wicked doctrine, and there were not even wanting parents who delivered up their own children to the knife of the blond- thirsty monster. Ou the fourth of the present_month, the sacrifices commenced and in the course of a couple of days, not less than 42 people | had been slaughtered at his hands. But he came to a very miserable end.
The most tragic imposture ever recorded in the annals of the Colony is that which took place in the valley of the Kukenam somewhere about 1845 and of which a special monograph has already been published in Germany : gs just mentioned, it is possibly the identical event of which an echo found its way in the occurrence mentioned by Brett. At any rate, the following would seem to be the actual story. At Ibirima-yeng, a settle- ment at the foot of Mt. Roraima there lived a certain medicine-man by the name of Awacaipu who, by his conspicuous cunning and charlatanism, had developed a great reputation amongst the superstitious Indians, and had become regarded by them generally as some superior Being. In his youth he had been in Georgetown, and had spent a considerable period in the service of Schomburgk during the latter’s travels in the interior, with the result that he obtained a slight knowledge of the English lan- guage, but also learnt all the tricks, dodges and vices of the negroes and coloured people with whom he came in contact. On his return to [birima- yeng, he accordingly knew at once how to inspire feelings of respect for himself amongst his people, but his ambitions, not satisfied with this,
SN
38 Timehri.
prompted him to make himself chief over all the Guiana Indian tribes. With this object in view he despatched messengers in every direction summoning all toa big meeting at the commencement of the dry season, when he would impart some extraordinary tidings and the means would be afforded them of being placed on an @jaality with the whites. The visitors had to engage to suspend all intér-tribal hostilities when they met, and to bring the powerful medicine-man presents as tribute. Awa- caipu’s reputation was so great amongst all the Indians that very many of them accepted the invitation. It thus came to pass that at the time
appointed by him, about a thousand Indians of every tribe in Guiana — :
found themselves gathered together in this valley of the Kukenam, where they built themselves houses and awaited the promised events. Every family that came along brought him presents of knives, scissors, mirrors, hooks, beads, salempores, ammunition, needles and many other of the articles prized by Indians, receiving in exchange therefor as amulets against the Evil Spirit, three small scraps of printed paper cut from the Times, etc, These were what Schomburgk had previously used as drying papers for the plants collected at Roraima, left behind on ac- count of their adding too much weight to the baggage, aud which the wily Indian knew only too well how to turn to account. To the big settle- ment that now housed all these people Awacaipu gave the name of Beckeranta, an Indianised form of the creole Dutch word Becke-land, the land of the Becke or whites, a term that would appear very apposite con- sidering what followed. Aaa got people to build for him a large mud-house at some distance away ; it was supplied with window openings and the partition walls were draped with salempores. Here he lived, unseen by the masses, in the upper story, while the lower contained his harem for which he had picked the most beautiful of the young girls whether they were betrothed or not, He very rarely let himself be seen in the general meeting houses, and then only when completely enveloped in salempores: his cunning eyes were alone exposed, and these threatened death and destruction on all who gazed on them. Under his instructions drinking feasts were held regularly night after night, commencing at sun- set and ending with sunrise! During the day the men lay drunk in their hammocks, the women, without intermission, manufacturing the beloved drink. While the Indians were thus spending week after week, the happiest times of their lives, Awacaipu was developing his plans to make - himself master. His idea was to put to death all the most powerful of the visitors including those able to bear arms; he was convinced that it would then be easy for him to gain the survivors over to his side. He determined upon executing this coup d’etat forthwith, in case any further delay might bring himself into trouble. Without warning, he put in an appearance at one of these drinking bouts just at that time of night when they were well obfuscated with the paiwarri. He told them that Makunaima, the Big Spirit, had instructed him to tell them: That he did not wish his brown children to be cursed by being driven out of their lands by the white man, to wander into the forests and wilderness with the wild animals, and live in
Some Examples of Indian Mimicry, Fraud and Imposture. 89
poverty and nakedness: that he was very fond of them, and was deter- mined that they should be like the whites in every respect: that he would make them superior to the latter, that they should become rich, carry firearms instead of bows, have white women as wives, and that instead of possessing a brown colour, which only suited slaves, they should have a white one: that with this end in view the opportunity was offered them, during the interval between this very night, from now onwards, up to the day after the morrow, for all who wished it, to sacrifice their lives, but each at the hands of the other: and that on the morning of the next full moon, the bodies of the dead would rise again, come down from the heights of Roraima to their families just like white people in colour, ways, and doings, asrulers over all the darker races.
_ With this, Awacaipa brought his sermon of Death to a conclusion, well _ convinced thatit would not fail to make a powerful impression on his
audience. The latter, notwithstanding they had listened to the harangue with great approval, never expected so terrible a peroration. Awacaipu, on seeing them upset and undecided, incited them into action by calling them cowards, and swinging about him the club that he held, crashed it on the chiefs standing by, their smashed heads tumbling into the half- emptied paiwarri trough. Pouring some of the bloody mixture -into a calabash, he himself drank the horrible contents, and filling it over and over ayain handed it round to the assembled crowd. In place of Indians the meeting house was now filled with a mob of unchained devils, male and female, old and young : intoxicated with blood acd drink, they lost control of themselves. The hostile tribes now remembered their former feuds that the all-powerful Piai had hitherto prudently kept in check, but to which, on his instructions, his terrible example gave free expression : they tore down the clubs hanging on the beams, and crashed them upon their victims, when roars of rage, shrieks of agony, and the dull rattle of death replaced the monotonous sing-song that only a short while previously had accompanied their dancing. Having effected his purpose, Awacaipu, anxious for his own safety, hurriedly betook himself to his own quarters. The orgie of this human shambles continued until the end of the third night, Makunaima’s order was obeyed, close upon 400 people, adults and children, being sacrificed to the maddest ambitions of a savage. The survivors slunk awed and cowed into their houses to await the fulfilment of the prophecy. A fortnight had passed since the 3-days’ tragedy of Blood and now was the day of the Full-moon, the day proclaimed for the Ressurrection, the glorious triumph was to be celebrated. And yet those poor deluded people waited until sunset, they waited the whole night through, without the prophecy being fulfilled—no white-skinned Indian returned from down the slopes of Roraima to Beckeranta. In sad and solemn silence they went back to their quarters, after being soothed by Awacaipu who informed them that the Great Spirit had bidden him say that, within five days for certain, their slaughtered relatives would indeed rise again, and come amongst them as white people, some unforeseen cause having protracted the transformation scene. Notwithstanding all this explanation, the Indians began to lose their faith, their dissatisfaction
40 Timehri.
being increased by the seizure of most of their beautiful women, and the cravings of hunger, due to the shortage of the cassava, immense quantities of which had been made into drink. Five days later, they assembled once more upon the hill awaiting the fulfilment of the prophecy, with Awacaipu seated in their midst: there, the whole night through, until sunrise, they stood in silence, alarmed and expectant, and nothing happened. They at last lost patience, as well as their faith: a subdued murmur became audible, it became louder and louder, and finally burst into a yell of ungovernable rage. The father of Wey-torre, a Herculean Indian, smashed his club on the skull of Awacaipu and felled him to the ground. The rest of the crowd witnessed the deed in surprise and awe, and every moment awaited the evil spirit’s anger to fall on Awacaipu’s mur- derer, but recognising now how they had been duped, uttered loud signs of agony and lamentation over their slaughtered fellow tribesmen. Awacaipu’s body was left as it was, a prey to the hungry dogs, the carrion crows feasting On what the latter disdained. All the survivors of the tragedy returned to their homes. Wey-torre and his father remained at the now abandoned spot which they set on fire, and soon the half-charred posts alone indicated the site of Beckeranta. In the early part of 1864 Appun met an old Arekuna on the Cako River who as a great treat showed him three sheets of printed matter that he had kept wrapt up most carefully in dried leaves. One was a page from an English Bible, another from the story of Aladdin, and the third an advertisement of Joyce’s Guncaps. While doing so, the old man led his visitor to the door of his hut, pointed to Roraima in the far distance, and then upon the yellowed papers, and uttered the words: “ Beckeranta! Beckeranta.” At that time, Appun knew nothing of the tragedy connected with the name, or with the three little scraps of paper.
ATABARAU-WENA. Be I. ate S.J.
It is now nearly a year ago since, in making my way to Roraima from the head waters of the Mazaruni, | came across the above-named great fall. A remark of mine about it ina letter #o Mr. Frere found its way into the public papers and apparently caused some excitement. But I practically never see auy papers, and sol heard nothing about it till I
,came recently to Georgetown. I have given a description of the fall in the account of my journey up the Mazaruni, in the ‘‘ Catholic Standard,” but the Editor of ‘‘ Timehri” is not satisfied, He says I must describe it in his periodical : and so 1am once more writing about it.
Towards the head of the Mazaruni there are three big tributaries on the left bank, the ‘“ Kukui,” the ‘ Kako,” and the “Kamarang.” Any one going from the Mazaruni to Roraima would naturally go up the middle of these, the Kako, which I had orginally intended doing, but I had reasons for changing my plans, and going up the Kamarang instead. If my readers will look at the Government Map of the Colony they will see that this river, after flowing in a general northward direction, takes a sudden sweep to the Hast. A little below this bend in the river, on the right _ bank is the mouth of the Atabaraw River. There is an Indian trail along the right bank of this river, which they usually follow when they go to
the Roraima Savannah from Kamarang River. They cross the Atabarau by aford above the great fall of the same name Atabarau-wena (wena meaning a fall.) But when they consider the river too high to be forded, they go up the river in a woodskin (it is the only kind of craft the natives use on the Mazaruni), land on the left bank, below the fal), and thence walk through the forest to the savannah. This is what we had to do. The rivers were very full.
It is a day’s journey from the mouth of Atabarau River to Paruaz, as the landing is called. Long before we got there, the current became so strong that we had many times to use the ropes. At other times we could only force ourselves along by hauling on to the trees over-hanging the banks. The water was covered with foam. Besides my own Indians I had three local men with me who knew the country well. They told me that the fall ahead was of gigantic dimensions like Kaieteur. Though I did not believe this I was naturally curious to see the fall. But they told me we should not be going near it. If we had gone by the overland route along the right bank of the Atabarau, we should have passed near it, but even then we should only have seen the lower part of the fall. From the left bank where we were it cannot be seen at all.
As I had to delay a day to allow the men time to hunt, | selected one man as a guide, and one of my boys, and started off along the left bank. After about three-quarters of an hour’s walk we start a stiff climb which soon becomes so steep that it requires the use of our hands as well as our
—<_
42, Timehri.
feet to getup. After reaching the top we go up a gentle incline and then, leaving the trail, we turn into the pathless forest on our left, and after a short .walk pick up the overland trail, and go along it till we reach the ford across Atabaraw River. ‘The river here is about 100 yards wide, at the ford itself the water is only about four feet deep, but the current is tremendous, the bottom of the river very slippery, composed as it is of flat smooth slimy rocks, and only 30 or 40 yards to the left, the whole river disappears down a precipice. It is nota pleasant place to cross. No one who slipped over I fancy could ever recover his footing. To slip over means death.
' Having got over to the other bank, we proceed on our way through forest. Five minutes later we have tocross anotber branch of the same river, the current is much the same, but it is much narrower and there is no fall visible on our left. Beyond this there is another short walk through forest before we finally issue into a swampy savannah; and there, on our left, is the object of our expedition.
The first thought that struck me as I reached the edge of the precipice was ‘This is glorious! The Indians have not exaggerated this time. This is indeed a rival of Kaieteur.’ We were viewing the fall from very much the same position as Kaieteur is first seen from, except that we were on the right bank of thé river instead of the left, and hence the fall was on our left instead of on our right. Butas the Indians had also truly told me, we could not see the whole fall from where we were. We spent an hour going up and down the edge of the precipice trying to find a spot from which we could get a satisfactory view, but without. success. To make things worse, most of the time it was raining, and even when it held up for a bit, there was a heavy mist rising from below which never completely cleared away. This made it practically impgssible to take a photo, but did not prevent our viewing what was to be seen.
Unlike Kaieteur, Atabarau-wena is in three drops. The river comes rushing down from above, making a sweeping curve, down a steep slope between boulders, on to a ledge from which it takes a leap into space, dropping perpendicularly down, into a deep dark pool surrounded with shining green grass, thence once more it takes a dive over a sloping ledge, and disappears between two huge bolders only to appear again far below, one seething mass, foreing its way along the rocks in what appears from our enormous height to be narrow rapids, along the bottom of the gorge, in size and grandeur, in no way inferior to its now well-known rival in the Potaro.
I had no instrument of any sort to measure the height. I might have made a rough estimate if I had been able to get a base line by pacing, but the rocky nature of the land made this impossible. Judging by the eye I should say the whole fall together is as high as Kaieteur. I saw it when the river was high. Even then, the Atabarau is notto be compared with the Potaro in size, but on the other hand, only a small portion of the waters of the Potaro fall over Kaieteur, most of the river is dammed up
oO
© Atabarau-wena. 43
by the ledge as by a lock. Hence it is that thereis so little current above the fall. A boat could go across the river afew yards above the fall. The Atabarau fallis different. Thereis no ridge todam the water. The whole river takes the precipice atarush, so that, during the rainy season at any rate, the volume of water is not far smaller than at Kaieteur.
The second and middle portion of the fall, the perpendicular drop, is exactly like Kaieteur, only of course on a far smaller scale, a great portion of the water being turned into spray and rising up in mist, long before it reaches the pool below. The pool is surrounded with the same moss-like
right green grass, as the pool at Kaieteur, and the surrounding amphi-
theatre of perpendicular cliffs, is all so like the fall in the Potaro, that almost anyone would take a poto of this part of the fal! as a photo of
Kaieteur. The same can be said of the rapids at the bottom of the gorge
Curiously enough, almost opposite the giant fall, is a small water fall which drops from the top of the cliff into the gorge below called Tomureng-wend, very much like Sarika-wena which can be seen through the trees half-way up from Tukeit to Kaieteur top.
If the Indians are right in saying that it is impossible to go to the foot of the fall, and equally impossible to get to the top of the opposite bank, i.e., the left bank, then the fall can never be seen properly. But if a full view of it can be otained, and I believe such would be possible either from the foot or the left bank, then I think Atabarau-wena can be said to be a formidable rival of Kaieteur. The surroundings are equally marvellous; if not more so, and the fall itself has more variety. But it will never be a popular place to visit as it is too much out of the way.
It is worth while stating that the Indian boy, Marco Law, who was with me, when he saw Kaieteur for the first time eight months later, said spontaneously: ‘ Why this is not as high as Atabarau-wena.”
Neither the fall nor the river Atabaraw is marked on the latest edition of the government map. I made a “ watch and compass survey ” of the Kamarang and the Atabarau, but have not yet had time to map it out.
If I had been on a pleasure trip, or scientific expedition, I should have stayed several days at the fall and found out all about it. But I can only take these things on the road and have no time to tarry.
THE FARME R’S PROGRESS.
By inh; UE DENNY. President of the B.G. Farmer’s Gansta
I am told that the keynote of this number of Timehri is ‘‘ progress” In other words it is to illustrate the great advance of the colony during the past few years. The colony is no longer stagnant. There is a suggestion of ‘something doing” as our American friends say. In every department of business we are going forward. Thisis anagricultural colony. We have valuable minerals it is true, but they are far away from us. Our greatest treasure is near at hand. It lies in the rich and wealthy soil of the coasts and rivers. It is the farmer and planter who are really the most important men in this community. They are the backbone of our pros- perity. Another pen than mine will deal with the planter and his work My subject is that of the farmer and his great calling. I say the farmer has a great calling. Viewed in the light of history we find his work to be the most natural and constant. In Palestine we read of a country rent by warfare, yet the farmer’s work still persisted. In the greatest of all wars the French peasant tilled his fields in the very smoke of German gun fire. Other figures may disappear from the scene. The agriculturist will still live on. His calling in this colony was for many years at a discount. It was thought a degradation to till the soil. This was due partly to the reaction against field labour after emancipation, and partly to the elusive but glittering attraction of the gold-fields. The gold industry, profitable though it may be, is responsible for the great disinclination of somany of the young men in our villages to settle on the land. Agriculture is not adventurous, neither does it appeal to the same instincts as the excitement ofa gold rush. For the reasons I have named, little by little farming fell into disrepute, The lands aback were deserted, and reverted to bush. The township property was neglected. In many cases it was mortgaged or sold to finance the expedition into the interior. Some of the young men too cultivated ambitions which drew them away from the land in other directions. A clerkship was their ideal, The pen they thought was a more honourable tool than a shovel or a hoe. The sphere of the teacher and the parson also, had greater attractions, than mother earth. In the meantime, however, a race of people were quietly cultivating the soil and bit by bit increasing their wealth. Perhaps the force of the silent example of the Hast Indian along with the revival in the sugar industry had not. a little to do with the revived interest in agriculture. Itis due to the farmer to say that itis only within recent years that he has been able to see the great advantages to be derived from the counsel and co-operation of other people. The lesson of unity has proved a hard one to learn. It is not quite learnt yet, but one is glad to think that the farmer in British Guiana has a juster appreciation of the value of co-operation than ever before. Two movements have done as much as anything during the last few years to stimulate the farmer’s interest in the soil and to convince him
The Farmer's Progress. 45
of the profit and usefulness of his calling. I refer to the institution of the Co-operative Credit Banks and the formation of the Farmers’ Con- ference.. One of the biggest difficulties in the farmer’s way was that of finance. Agriculture even in a small way needs capital to improve and develop the area of cultivation. The farmer was generally impecunious, and being something of a fatalist thought it was God’s will that he should always be poor and of no account. The writer has often heard a man of this type say ‘‘ I am a poor man, sir,” when on inquiry I found the speaker had a house and a little land which if cultivated would soon repay his toil. I suppose that he meant he had no money available to put into the land, and so he was inclined to do nothing. The Credit Banks are helping to alter this attitude. It is indicative of the great difficulty of. getting the people to appreciate the value of any new idea that the actual institu- tion of these banks occurred several years after the scheme was initiated. The initiation of the movement was due to the labours of Mr. McFarlane Corry, a gentleman of exceedingly sound ideas on the progress of the people, but their actual] institution was the work of the enthusiastic and energetic propaganda of Mr. C. Shankland. By addressing meetings of farmers up and down the country, by much patient and exhaustive ex- planation of the scheme, and ready and pointed replies to criticisms, Mr. Shankland woke a very keen interest in the movement in the minds of the people. Experience has taught the latter the value of such an institution. There are now twenty-seven Co-operative banks in active operation with a membership of over seven thousand. These represent a capital of over forty thousand dollars. During the pre- sent year this has increased by forty-four per cent. The figures quoted sbove are taken from the last available report of the Banks Com- mittee. The majority of those enjoying the benefits of the banks are farmers belonging to both the East Indian and negroraces. The history of these banks reveals a story of progress. There is every reason to believe they have a future of very great development before them. The British Guiana Farmers’ Conference has been another great factor in revival of agriculture, In its present form this body dates from 1916. It had been felt for a long time that the existing agricultural associations needed he and direction and needed also some medium through which the opinions and wants of the small farmers might be made known to a wider audience, Thanks very largely to the Rev. EH. R. O. Robertson, who with a few helpers roused the farmers on the question, a Conference of farmers consisting of two or more delegates from each association was held for the first time in 1916. At this Conference the Attorney General and other leading citizens were present to show their sympathy with the farmers’ efforts. Since then the Conference has been held annually and is to-day a prime factor in the life of the agricultural community. Finding the Loan Banks too narrow in their range, and only able to advance com- paratively small amounts of money at one time to any indivicual, Mr. Robertson, for the encouragement of rice farming, looked about him for other sources of help. This he secured first of all from the Colonial Bank, and latterly from the Royal Bank of Canada. These corporations
46 Timehri.
were able to advance large sums of money to the farmers, and the result is seen in the great impetus given to the rice industry among the black people of the Mahaicony and Abary Districts. In passing I might say that the chief obstacle to the further progress of this industry is the lack of irrigation, A few weeks from the time of writing it was my duty to visit a certain portion of the East Coast of Demerara and the West Coast of Berbice. In these districts of late years there has been a tremendous increase in the yield of rice. There should be no reason why this year’s harvest should be less than its predecessors. The farmer planted at theright time, but when the plants needed water most there was no rain. Although in the near neighbourhood of three creeks—the Mahaica, the Mahaicony and the Abary—the plants were gradually burnt up. Thousands of dollars have been lost all for the want of acanal and afew pumps. The writer believes, however, that the farmers themselves are determined to remedy this state of things. If they avail themselves of the ainendments of the Polder Ordinance they will be able to select an authority from among themselves to carry out such irrigation works as may be necessary. At last the farmer is growing discontented with his condition. His revival of interest in the land, the example of his East Indian neighbour, the new spirit born of association and co-operation with others, all unite in lending the farmer a new vision of his possibilities, and a new conception of his calling and his place in the community. This spirit of discontent with ‘ things as they are” is one of the truest signs of real progress. The self-complacent spirit never hears the call to advance, but sits wrapped round in easeful slumber. A genuine discontent is like to the faint stirrings belore the dawn when the darkness is breaking and the air is full of expectancy. It is the preparation for the vision. The spirit moved by a profound discontent is stumbling along the way which leads to the mount of vision. I believe the farmers of the colony are walking in that way. With patience and under intelligent as well as enthusiastic leadership they will yet prove their right to a certain position in the community. There is, I believe, a growing sense of esprit-de- corps among the small farmers. They are realising the force of the truth that we are ‘‘members one of another,” and hence little by little there is growing up a real sense of the strength and usefulness of unity. If the years have accomplished this all the efforts of the past will not have been made in vain, for given this sense of union the farmers of this colony will accomplish all and more than they have ever dreamed of. Intheir hand lies the colony’s future, for the day will dawn when the peasant proprietor will be indeed lord of the land, With the certain decline in the price of sugar, and the gradual centralization of sugar factories it is inevitable that unless the cane-farmer be encouraged for all he is worth, the staple industry of the colony will not be able to maintain its position. Along other lines also there isroom for the expansion and development of the ~ farmer’s calling. If the progress of the last few years is maintained that calling is assured. in that progress there is the promise ofa bright future. The p vist few years have been a time of sowing. The promise of harvest. is sure and abundant.
CANE-BORERS IN 1879.
PAST EFFORTS OF THE R. A. & C. SOCIETY.
- ee
By THE EDITOR.
In connection with the work ofdealing with cane-pests, it may be well to draw attention to what we may call the awakening of the planters in 1879. Hitherto little notice had been taken in anything but a general way, borers were seen and looked upon as in the order of things, which could not beamended. Evenin England the old farmers once thought that man could do nothing and it would be interesting to note the gradual change from passive to active. Under the law of progress we gain more knowledge as we move on and are impelled to wake up. But some people are inclined to rush to extremes and this is probably the position to-day; the planter tries to kill the pests and upsets the natural fair balance by destroying friends and enemies at the same time.
Fifty years ago there was little burning of canefields, little manuring, and probably fewer pests than we have now. Under natural conditions the cane trash was the best manure and the ants in the field the best pro- tection against borers. Borers were there and so were rats but their enemies were alsoin force to keep them down. It is plain that when we interfere with the proper balance we make trouble for ourselves, but we have to take pains with every effort. This ‘“ taking pains” seems to be a natural law ; we cannot do any good work without it.
When we assume that nothing is a real evil, but good in its place we can say that ants and snakes are in place where there are borers and rats. The general idea is that canecutters will not work unless these supposed pests are driven out by firing, yet the old planter got his work done before the canes were burnt. It is no doubt startling to come upon a snake, but as so few are poisonous there is no reason for the common horror of them. As for ants the cane-cutter of to-day must be a weakling for his ancestors took little account of them. Now and then we have reports of wood-ants (termites) in our fields; these can be overcome by ants. It may be noted that the native Indians have to endure the most viru- lent stings of ants to make them brave; no Indian boy is afraid of ants
Interference with the order of things often brings trouble, and yet we must try to deal with our pests. The point is to find out the better ways. It would not help us to use the method advocated by Hughes, ~ who took his idea from the “smother” then common in connection with mosquitoes. What might be useful in 4 house would not necessarily be effective outdoors. I think the suggestion made at the meeting of the Society to bring ants’-nests into the cane-fielda is worth considering to- day ; possibly the best ant may not be the most virulent to us.
48 Timehrs.
Whether a pest or disease existed in old times is often a problem difficult to solve. Symptoms were mentioned but rarely can we say, e.g., what kind of a “fever” or “‘ borer” existed even a century ago. It there- fore becomes important to the historian to consider even negative evidence, which in this case points to the probability that Castnia licus had not appeared in 1879. My memory recalls Mr. Howell Jones pointing out specimens in the Museum somewhere in the nineties (perhaps 1893) when it was considered a new pest. It had been collected in the forest and was well figured as long ago as 1770 by Cramer, but it is not very common.
Possibly the borers began to appear here at some time before 1870: we find no notice of them in early years of the century. About 1740 Gravesande spoke in favour of cane-growing in Essequebo and one point was the absence of borers which were known in some of the West Indian Islands. Complaints of the cost of sugar production were often made, but we cannot find any mention of insect pests. As, however, there was a ten- dency to look upon all plagues as in the nature of things and incapable of alteration we may presume that they were considered like drought and deluge, as things no man could alter.
The names blast, blight, mildew, worms, and shrivel were applied to effects rather than causes; we can see from books on agriculture of one or two centuries ago that some religious people considered them as part of a system of Divine rewards and punishments. Famines might come through carelessness of the farmer, but he was always inclined to think he had done his duty. The change to the other idea that we may fight against them was very slow and gradual.
The following extracts on “The Yellow Blast” are from Hughes’ Barbados, 1750, p. 245 :—
“This destructive Blast . . . . proceeds from swarms of little insects at first invisible to the naked eye; and as the juice of the cane is their proper food, they in search of it, wound the tender blades of the cane and destroy the vessels. Hence the circulation being impeded, the growth of the plant is checked and soon after it withers, decays or dies, in propor- tion to their degree of ravage.
* * * <
‘On Sickly Canes . . . . small protuberant knobs of a soft downy substance, often containing in them smal] white maggots, which, I believe, turn afterwards into small brownish moths, which are to be seen in great multitudes among the blades of infected canes.
BPR er, ke
“The Blast is observed to be most frequent in very dry years, there having been but little of it when seasonable rains have begun early and continued till the canes were ripe.
oO ie “Tt is observable that the Blast usually appears successively in the game fields, and often in the very same spot of land . . . . the infection
always spreads faster to the leeward, or with the wind.
Cane-Borers in 1879. 4,9
‘¢ This disease hath been hitherto of the number of those which are incurable .... a studious attempt to remove so creat an evil will, I daresay, meet with the approbation of every well-wisher to our West India Islands, especially since what I have to offer upon this eelee 18 attended with the strongest probability of success.
* ++ *
‘Take an equal quantity of brimstone, aloes and the bark of bitter wood .... put in the middle of a bundle of wet straws in a cradle of wire. Being set on fire it is passed to windward of the canes for a few mornings and evenings to make a smother.”
_ As late as 1819 Bryan Edwards in the fifth edition of his History of the West Indies (Vol. II. p. 252) said :—
“The sugar-cane is subject to a disease which no foresight can obvi- ate, and for which human wisdom has hitherto, I fear, attempted in vain — to finda remedy. This calamity is called the blast; it is the aphis of Linnzus, and is distinguished into two kinds, the black and the yellow, of which the Jatter is the most destructive. It consists of myriads of little insects, invisible to the naked eye, whose proper food is the juice of the cane, in search of which they wound the tender blades, and conse- ~ quently destroy the vessels. Hence, the circulation being impeded, the growth of the plant is checked, until it withers or dies ia proportion to the degree of the ravage.”
In a note he mentions the Borer :—
“In some of the Windward Islands, the cane in very dry weather is liable to be destroyed also by a species of grub called the borer. This calamity is fortunately unknown, at least to any extent in Jamaica. .
In Tobago they have another destructive insect called the Jumper Fly.”
This last was probably the Frog-hopper.
_ In 1879 there appears to have been something to rouse the sugar- planters ; produce was going down in price and every grower had to look for ways and means to get more sugar and reduce its cost. In a cane- field ‘‘ blighted canes” were often seen and the damage was attributed to one or more ‘ Borers.” On the 9th of May, 1879, at a general meeting of the R.A. and C.S., the President, Hon. J. E. Tine, moved that they consider the adoption of such united action as may appear to be best adapted for preventing the ravages caused by the ‘ Borer” and other - insects to the sugar-cane throughout the colony.
Specimens were shown by Mr. im Thurn, then Curator of the Museum, and it is notable that the Castnia was not included ; we may safely state that it had not yet appeared. Three species of Borers were shown, the first Calandra palmarum and the second a smaller weevil, probably Sphenophorus. The third was a moth named Proceras sacchariphagus, probably Diatrcea. Some stir had been made in Mauritius and the name of the oe of that colony was adopted, ©
50 : Timehri.
Several members spoke on the matter, including Messrs. W. Russell, KE. Field, McCalman and Pitman ; all agreed that something should be done to find out whether remedies could be found. It was therefore agreed to write to Mauritius and meanwhile a Committee was appointed to draft a circular so that as much information as possible might be gained.
The circular was printed and sent to every planter and it may be noted that it probably represented the knowledge of the time. The Committee knew little but were desirous of getting all the knowledge available. First, they wanted descriptions of the insects, and second, in- formation as to the means taken to get rid of them and the result of these measures. Suggestions were made as to what might be tried. If borers were present the canes should be cut as soon as possible, close to the ground. Don’t burn or bury the infected canes but pass them through the mill. Examine all tops before planting and if any show sions of borers, soak in warm water at 125° for 48 hours. A solution of 37 sulphate of ammonia could be poured into the axils of the leaves or the tops might be stripped and soaked. The trash should not be buried but burnt. All faulty canes should be cut out as soon as found and put through the mills, burying was not sufficient. Cane stumps should be examined two weeks after cutting and all suspicious ones removed. Birds and ants should be encouraged, strong manures probably injured the latter and in dry weather they poisoned both ants and canes.
On the whole the planter will admit that useful precautions were already suggested and it can be seen that ants should not be destroyed as they now are when the fields are burnt. Probably, these insects could be fostered in a way to reduce the borers, but we must not burn the fields. The system of burning was not general forty years ago and _ possibly some of our trouble has come through interfering with the order of things. We may burn some borers, but we also destroy their enemies which are our friends. It may be good policy to burn an old house or the bedding of a small-pox patient, but we don’t burn our friends. Unfortunately, when a cane field is fired, friends and enemies are equally unsafe ; even birds are driven away.
It has been thought desirable to publish the report of the meeting of the Society that probably woke up the planters and started the work now being done on every plantation. As it was only published in the newspaper it is hidden from our present-day planters, who may read it even now with interest, though they know more than the ‘Sugar Kings” of forty years ago. The point to be noted is that
‘burning was adopted ; borers might have been less or more under the old
system but we have certainly lost much manure through burning the, trash. Perhaps the old natural way where ants and birds were encouraged might have been better, but of course we cannot undo the past though we may try a reversion to a more natural way. There is always much risk in interfering with the balance of life and probably the idea of burn-
Cane-Borers in 1879 51
ing to clear land will be abolished in the near future. It seems plain that cane pests have become worse of late years, but it is hard to say that the spreading of Castnia licus was due to any measures that have been taken. Attention may however be called to the probability that most of the pests come from grasses and other weeds, all of which can be reduced by plant- ing parapets and dams with useful trees and shrubs. When dams were lined with fruit trees there were few weeds, and perhaps few borers.
“The President said that the chief object of this meeting was to elicit information with rezard to the insects which were attacking the sugar- cane in different parts of the country. Some gentlemen took it easily and thought that we should live through this plague as we had done others ; others thought it was a disaster that they could not possibly survive. He was inclined to take a middle course and though he thought it was a Serious disaster yet he hoped that like mauy similar disasters they would be able to overcome it and keep the Colony alive for a long time to come. He thought the most satisfactory plan would be to obtain suggestions as to how the evil might be met, and seein what way they could carry out suggestions ; and perhaps the best way would be, first ofall to ask Mr. im Thurn what specimens of the borer and other insects he had seen in the Sugar canes that had been sent to him, and after that the meeting could express some opinions on the subject.
‘* Mr. im Thurn said he was afraid the specimens on the table were not in very good order: but there were three different kinds of borers there ; two beetles, both of them weevils, a large and a small kind and one moth which was said to be the Proceras.
‘Mr. Pitman said the moth came from Pln. Chateau Margot. Mr. im Thurn said there were also specimens of the caterpillar and cocoon. There was the little white caterpillar with black spots upon it and there was its little brown smooth, slim chrysalis.
“The President said that some of their planter friends would no doubt be able to tell them which of those borers was doing most mischief and how to get rid of them. Mr. Field, he thought, had the most experience, and therefore he would ask him to open the discussion.
‘Mr. Field said that as far back as 1874 he found the attacks of the borer to be very serious. He then addressed a letter to the newspapers on the subject ; he sent for publication extracts from the ‘Sugar-Cane ” giving an account of the proceedings of the committee appointed in Mauritius, where the cane had been almost exterminated by this voracious insect, and acting in accordance with the recommendations of that com- mittee he took the proceeding of burning his fields; he supposed they had all read the extracts from the ‘ Sugar Cane,” which were printed not only in 1874 but again within a few weeks ago in the Royal Gazette ; he thought that the committee had so completely exhausted the subject that there was nothing for him to add to the theory of this insect. They would
52 Timehri.
~
notice that one of the recommendations was that fire should be put to the
canes and that the canes that were left on the parapets should be des- troyed ; and so anxious were the committee that this should be done and So necessary was it considered that unity of action should be obtained that they recommended the Government to pass a law insisting upon the planters burning the fields and if the fields were not burnt within five days after they were cut the police were empowered to goin and burn them off. Here they adopted the fire system thinking that that might be of some assistance and there was no doubt it was of great assistance, but yet it was not sufficient to put an end to the insects. Since then from the burning of the fields and the fine seasons the canes grew more luxuriantly until 1878, but at the commencement of that year, he noticed that the insects were again doing serious injury to the canes. He did not think at first of cutting out the borer from the stoles, but now he was quite convinced that it was a very proper thing to do to exterminate the insect. The fieids should be searched, the borers cut out
with a large knife and thrown into the water in the trenches. He tried ©
that experiment in one of his fields, and he found that in a field of five acres containing 299,511 cane stoles 1,763 cr 1.77 per cent. were found attacked the first time; the second time about a week afterwards 1,117 more, making a total of 2,880, or 2.88 per cent. and in some fields the number found had been much more numerous than that, all the fields were attacked more or less on the Diamond, and those four or five months old were beyond retrieving ; that was tosay, there were so many of the others which he had tried to eradicate this insect from, that he had not had the time to attend to them all but eighteen men were employed in going through all the young fields with large kitchen knives and cutting out the diseased sprouts, bringing them out of the field and throwing them into the side line canal. He hoped by that means to eradicate the insect from the young fields. The men went through about nine acres a day, and the cost was 45 cents an acre. Of course it was necessary that all the tops that were going to be planted should be examined, and he thought the best . plan was that all which were found with holes in them should be immersed in water for a sufficient time. He had tried this by soaking the tops in water for 24 hours and at the end of that time he found some of the insects dead but some of them still alive, so that water did not kill all of them in 24 hours. He should have kept them in water for 48 hours. 48 hours immersion in water would not injure the tops in any way, and therefore he should think that that would be certainly one plan of getting rid of the insects which infested the cane tops. His plan was to fill acane punt with water and throw the canes intoit and after four and twenty hours to examine them, He thought that all rotten canes should be taken out of the field and either burnt on the parapet if the weather was dry, or if the weather was wet, buried in the ground 24 feet deep between the row of canes. That was one plan he had to suggest but of course it was very necessary that all the planters should be unanimous in carrying out the suggestions that were agreed to, to ensure success it was no use one per- son attempting to doit, or even two or halfa dozen. It was well known
—————<——
Cane-Borers in 1879, 58
that these insects were in the habit of flying from one field to another and therefore if he did it—and he had already gone to a great deal of expense and Jabour—and the same thing was not done on the next estate the insects of Farm would come over to Diamond and he should only be where he was before. But at any rate there was no doubt that the injury that those insects were doing was enormous and they were not only occasioning the destruction of the cane. but the deterioration of the juice, because every cane that wasattacked by the borer became acid. That acid mixed with the juice caused a very great increase of glucose to the ton of crystallizable sugar, and that was one of the reasons why they were getting so much more rum than formerly instead of sugar. He would suggest that the President should communicate with the society in Mauritius with a view to ascertain what was the result of the action taken there to exterminate the insects. What plans were adopted and with what success. Hethought thatthe President of the Society would gladly state what was their experience there, and he (Mr. Field) was sure it would be of very great value to the people of this colony.
‘Mr. Kelly said that in 1873 immense numbers of the smaller worms were found in the young canes on Pln. Albion. At first he was rather at a loss to find out what was to be done with them, but after a little con- sideration he decided to cut out the shoots an inch below the giound and place some lime over them to mark the place where they stood; he found that in two or three weeks very healthy shoots usually came up round
the shoot that had been cut, and he did not believe that the attacks of
the smaller worm, if taken in hand at once, were so very serious. When - the other kind attacked the canes he did not know what else could bedone except to cut them outimmediately. What Mr. Field suggested he hoped would have the desired effect. The object should be that as soon asa single shoot was seen attacked a few hands should be put into the field to cut them out. ‘The larger weevil he believed attacked the canes at the head and he did not know what was to be done; but the advice he had given to the manager of one of the ‘Colonial Company’s estates was to watch the advanced canes and to endeavour to cut them out at an early age. He believed that a great deal of assistance could be got from insects such as ants. In several ofthe rotten canes he had examined he had found insects, A piece of rotten cane was put into the box this morning with one of the larger worms in it; he had since found ants in it and he be- lieved that the insect was killed.
‘‘ Mr. Pitman said he had come to the meeting to learn and not to teach, but he could safely endorse the statements that had fallen from Mr. Field and Mr, Kelly. About four months ago an East Coast manager brought to his notice the serious damage which was being done by the borer among his canes. He did not take any notice of it at first, but on going to the es- tate he found that the remarks which he had heard about the borer were in no way exaggerated. On going into the fields he found that the ravages of the insects were so great that there were only a few sound shoots to be found, The manager of the estate had since informed him that the crop of the
54 Timehri.
estate had been thrown back for three months, as the result of the damage which the cultivation had sustained. He regretted to say that in one field where the tops had been cut out the borers existed in the same numbers that they existed before. Finding this to be the case he wrote to his friend Mr. Field asking if he could come forward and give his advice and he (Mr. Field) had very kindly done so through the medium of this Society. On visiting other estates he made enquiries and was generally told that such a thing did not exist, or if it did exist that it was no worse than it ever had been. On one large estate they replanted lately 130 acres of canes; he had given orders that the tops should be most carefully picked but on going through the field he did not find one sound one; they were attacked by the borer, and he fancied that it would have been better if they had never been replanted. To use the words of the Mauritius committee they had simply perpetuated the evil. He had met with the three kinds of insects which had been shown by Mr. im Thurn but the big beetle was the one he had most experienced and be had found them in thousands in cane tops recently planted. Whether they had chosen those tops to deposit their eggs he was not sure but he rather thought that was the case because several gentlemen had told bim that they were very common in the megass logies. On some estates the small moth was the insect that was doing most harm ; on other estates it was a beetle. The estates with which he was connected suffered principally from the moth. With regard to what Mr. Field said about putting the cane tops into water and keeping them for 48 hours he thought the Commission in Mauritius stated that immersion was of no use unless the temperature of the water was brought up to 125 degrees. Cold water simply stupetied the insects, - and though apparently dead, as soon as they were taken out they came to life again. Withreference to drilling the fields and burying the trash he did not think it would be an effective way of getting rid of them as the soil cracked so muchin dry weather that he doubted very much whether they could have the trash buried deep enough to prevent the insects from escaping. He would like to know very much from gentle- men present if they burnt their canes once or twice; if they burnt the same on pegass lands as they did on heavy stiff soil, and whether they left the tops on the field or put them in the small drains or removed them from the field altogether.
‘Mr. McCalman said that since the change in the weather which was much desired set in in February last, he was very much surprised at the - small returns made from the canes, and that induced him and Mr. Russell © to visit some of the estates. To their great surprise, both in the cane carrier and in the fields they found the most fearful rayages going on. The canes instead of improving by the rains, appeared to be retarded in their growth; the quantity of juice required to the hogshead had risen from 1,800 to 3,000 gallons because the advantage to be derived frem high tillage supplemented by artificial manures was shut off from the plants and the canes were not benefiting at all. He was very much in-
Cane-Borers in 1879. 55
terested in the subject and after going round several estates with Mr. Russell, he wrote to several managers of estates to the following effect :— From examination of the canes on estates in various parts of the coleny he found that much if not all of the decrease and disappointing yield of canes cut recently could be traced to the ravages of the borer and not, as had been supposed, to the prolonged drought though the sickly and impoverished state the canes were reduced to from that evil might have been the primary cause of the ruinous extent to which the borer had destroyed them. This ‘parasite in many instances rednced the yield to half of what the appearance of the canes would indicate. The canes had been attacked’ in all stages. of growth from the canes forming the first joint to those in every stage of growth towards ripeness and he urged upon those in charge of estates or the canes on the estate under their management by first examining the external appearance of the canes as the attack of the borer could be easily observed by the hole through the rind and the sort of white mouldy ap- pearance of the tender joints in which the ants attack (possibly to the saving of the canes). When the cane was split down the centre the extent of the injury could be ascertained. The next point to consider was what were the remedial measures to be adopted to check the ravages of this pest. He suggested the strictest attention should be paid to cutting them as closely to the ground as possible and all the rotten and decayed sprouts should be cut, at the same time the trash should be removed as quickly as possible from the stumps and carefully burnt with all the rotten canes and tops that were infested with the borer. If this were done before the stumps sprung they would not suffer or be retarded in their growth. Second—That no decayed or damaged tops should be planted nor stumps that had already jointed as that would be “perpetuating the evil.” Third—It had been found that if the tops were immersed in six inches of water mixed with two percent. of ammonia in a wooden punt or puncheon it destroyed the larva and chrysalis but further experiments and obser- vations must be continued with chemicals that might be found capable of destroying the worm. With the Colorado beetle Paris green had been found a successful remedy when diluted in a certain quantity of water; the proportions he could not remember just then. Kerosene oil might be tried by rubbing it slightly over the joint attacked. But he urged upon them that every effort must be made to check the evil and that it was the bounden duty of every manager to devote all his talent and energy to rub out an evil that threatened the very existence of the colony as a sugar-producing one. It was a matter of much surprise to him. that where so much loss had been sustained gentlemen in charge of estates had not traced out the cause earlier, and no one was in a position to give any reliable information as to the period when those worms first attacked the canes so seriously ; infact they had been living in a ‘‘fool’s paradise”; all the time and attributing all to the drought. He impressed on the staff of the estate to which he wrote the urgent necessity that existed for stamping out this calamitous pest, stating that the planter who could introduce a specific remedy for the
56 Timehr.
evil would deserve well of the planters and the colony at large and would no doubt be liberally rewarded. He also pointed out that it would be desirable to ascertain, if possible, how far canes in all stages had been attacked, that it must be patent to all who had carefully examined the destruction of canes that had been allowed fair age, that it would be much to the advantage of estates if the canes had beencut at nine to ten months, as the juice of such canes had been found by experiment to be far richer in saccharine than canes of more advanced age that had been seriously attacked by the borer; and as it was an evil that required strong measures to check it, that he would be glad to receive any suggestions they might have to make that might be considered of advantage in gaining the ends they had in view. He had received several interesting letters, and it was surprising, although the question had been gone into with greater minuteness than before, how-very seriously the loss had extended. He had a letter from one manager who went into a minute calculation, showing how seriously the crop had been affected But it had not yet been seen whether the measurers that had been taken would be successful. One remedy was to burn the canes as much as possible which could not fail to destroy some of the insects, and another was to cut down the canes as soon as they were attacked. Another plan recommended by a planter was to cut the canes and throw all the tops into the small drains and buru the other parts of the field. Thathad been done and at the end of five days out of more than five hundred tops that were searched only two insects werefound alive. Insects that were im- mersed for 24 hours would after a time come out as lively as they were before. But with regard to suggestions of the Mauritius commission we were labouring under a great disadvantage. In all West India Colonies as well as in Mauritius there wasa crop season, and sometimes in the course of a hundred days they very nearly got rid of the whole of their crop ; but here they could not burn out everything completely, owing to the large area and the means of taking off the crop. It was a very fortunate thing, however, that in this country there was a Wild Bird’s Protection Ordinance because here, as in other countries, the birds would be found to be of service in destroying the insects. Another thing was the ants. He had a conversation with a high official here recently who told him that in some of the islands the attack of the borer was a very serious thing,
“but that it was not so universal as in this colony; and in that island they used to convey ants from one district to another to destroy the young borer. Where the trash of the canes was peeled off, the borer was in a great many instances destroyed by the ants. So that those very disagreeable insects were sometimes of some advantage to us. But the success of their efforts to eradicate the evil would in a great measure depend upon the energy of the gentlemen who had charge of the estates. The evil was much greater than that which existed during the dry weather. That might have been the origin of the evil; but this colony was not different to some other countries, where the borer had attacked the coffee trees also.
Cane-Borers in 1879. 57
‘Mr. im Thurn said he thought it would be found that in those cases the insect made its appearance after the dry season. Here it was the same. It was the dry season which weakened the cane and enabled the insect to get into it.
“Mr, Keliy said that in cases where the tops had been immersed in water for 48 hours, the worms taken out were found to be dead.
“Mr. Pitman said they lived remarkably well in temper lime.
‘¢Mr. Russell said it was a great many years now since his attention had been directed to insects of that description. Mr. Jones, of the Hope, was good enough once to send him the chrysalis of what he took to be the Proceras of Mauritius. At all events it agreed so much with the species found in the sugar-cane that he was almost inclined to think it was the same. ‘I'he weevils were almost the same from the little fellow that attacked the rice, to the big groo-groo which found its way into the cabbage tree when it was cut down. He had known of the ravages that they made on the cane-tops ever since he was an overseer and the specimens before them were a fair representation of what they did. The little weevil he had had occasion to observe since he was an overseer, and he was sorry to say it was spreading toa great degree, because one could not go into a cane- field now without finding it in all stages of development, But the thing that they required to get rid of the most was the moth, that was the insect which was causing such alarm now. At first he was under the im- pression that they were confined to the young canes and he set people to werk-to cut them out on the same principle as that adopted by Mr. Field and other gentlemen, He found in nearly every part of the cane as well as the ground part that this, what he called the Proceras, had deposited eggs and had driven holes through the cane and that nature had endowed them with sufficient sense to make a double hole, so that when they parted with their chrysalis they got out and laid their eggs on fresh canes. He thought they confined themselves to the young canes, but now there was scarcely a cane in which the ravages of the moth could not be traced. He was inclined to think that the moth was followed by asmall weevil beetle because he had not found the beetle without finding traces of the moth having bored through the canes. It was a most persistent iusect and its power of penetrating through the pith of the cane was something remarkable. Having determined that it was this moth that was our great enemy the next thing was to recommend some means of getting rid of it and there they were ina terrible mess. As Mr. McCalman has said, the insect attacked canes in all stages of their growth. Some time ago he visited Rose Hall plantation in Berbice where the ravages of the insect in the canes were frightful. The sap of the canes had deteriorated, and he found sweet looking “ front” canes polarising 74, while “‘ back” canes on the same estate were polarising 94. He attributed the falling off in the quality of the juice entirely to the ravages of the insect and when he told them that that represented a difference of one-third of a pound of sugar per gallon of cane juice, they would realize the loss that they were
58 Timehri.
now sustaining. On that estate Mr. McCalman and himself decided to burn the field, That was done and everything was carried out of the field. On his return to the estate after the fteld was replanted there was not a eane he could not find specimens of the borer, and in one instance it was in the chrysalis state. Now that seemed to put the question of burning almost entirely in defiance, unless it was possible to burn everything in one time ; burning single fields seemed to him to be of no avail. He had
seen those small moths flying along the punt trenches on mornings when
the dew had fallen but where they went to he could not say. It was the opinion of some planters that artificial manure was the means of driving away the ants from the cane-fields. He noticed himself that the ants to be found in the fields were very few compared with what they used to be when he was an overseer. He thought that the best thing to do would be to get boxes of ants and place them in the fields, and if need be stop the use of artificial manure. He had seen such little effects from the use of manure, and he had heard that without rain it was poison. He believedthat the money spent for manure last year was thrown away ; that the manure was of no use whatever, but was driving away the ants. Ithad been brought to his notice that the groo-groo worm was not only to be found in the old canes. Mr. Munro had found them digging in the bulb that sent up the fresh shoots. When the stumps were dug out as many as eight groo-groo worms were found in each stump. To get rid of them he proposed digging out all the stumps and burning the earth as the most effectual mode of cooking the goose. It was possible the insects would go away with the weather; but it was really a very serious matter for the planters of this colony and he was almost hopeless of suggesting any remedy on account of the peculiar nature of our cultivation. Cutting out the shoots might reduce the evil to a certain extent, but.he was afraid there was no one present who was prepared to name a radical cure for it. But there was another “ borer” which was a greater evil even than the cane-borer, of which he should not say anything there, as the Society did not discuss politics. He had given little attention to politics since his return from his own country, but certain speeches which he had read that were made in our Courts lately had made his flesh creep. He was precluded from entering into that question there, where politics were abjured, but he might take the opportunity to gointo the question at some other time. He thought there was a much greater existing evil than the sugar cane-borer. (Applause).
‘* Mr. Pitman said that the borer was not confined to the canefields and had been in a potato field.
‘* Mr. McCalman said that he had been informed by Mr. Jones (of Pln. Hope) that the practice on that estate was to carry all the defective canes to the mill and grind them on Saturday night, and to send all the juice, if any, to the distillery. By those means the borer in all its stages was totally destroyed. The decayed stumps that were not springing should be dug out of the ground and burnt in an earth heap. When the
Cane-Borers an 1879. 59
tops were immersed in water, due care should be taken that the worms did not escape, as it was found that they escaped over the sides of the tub or small drain, in which they were immersed.
‘Mr. Field said he would ask the President whether he thought it desirable to form a committee for the purpose of investigating the matter more thoroughly with power to take evidence.
“The President said he intended to suggest what Mr. Field had pro- posed. It seemed that although they had got favourable weather for a more vigorous growth of the canes, they should have to put their shoulders to the wheel to wipe out an evil which had been very destructive to the fields. There was a suggestion that they should communicate with the Society in Mauritius to ascertain what had beeg the results of the treat- ment of the canes in that colony; that, he had no doubt the Secretary would do. It was suggested, secondly, that they should send specimens of the insects to Mauritius and to England, because it was very evident that we had not the same borer to deal with, as they had in Mauritius, they should try and ascertain at what stage of the growth not only of the in- sects, but of the cane it was best to endeavour to check the evil. As far as calling in legislative aid went, he thought that they were far more capable of dealing with the matter themselves, and that they would pro- bably do it very much better. (Applause). His own suggestion would be that they should appoint a Committee of seven gentlemen to send out a circular to every manager in the colony giving the suggestions that they had heard to-day, such as cutting out the young canes when they were faulty soaking the cane-tops with holes for 48 hours in water heated to a temperature of 125 degrees and possibly mixed with ammonia or other substance ; burning all the trash; carrying out the stumps to the mill and grinding them, cutting the ripe canes at the earliest possible stage when they were found diseased and lastly throwing the tops into the small drains or into water whilst the fields were being burnt. He thought that if acommittee of seven gentlemen would draw up acircular and put those suggestions into shape and submit them to Mr. Campbell to have them printed and sent out to every manager in the country, andifthey could get any more experience on the subject from managers they might in the end be able to find an effectual remedy. He would name Mr. Field, Mr. McCalman, Mr. Kelly, Mr. Russell, Mr. Pitman, Mr. B. H. Jones, and Mr. im Thurn, as members of the committee.
The suggestion was agreed to, and Mr. Tinne was appointed chairman of the committee and was asked to prepare the draft of the circular above re— ferred to. |
The following is one of the replies :-— RECEIVED 9TH JUNE, 1879. | REPORT ON THE BORER FROM PLN. “GREAT DIAMOND.” 1, The cane-borers have been very destructive te the canes in all stages of growth on this estate, and continue to be so, although the trash, soon after the canes were cut, had been burnt off continuously for five years. Those fields which were severely burnt suffered less
than the others. The conclusion come to is, that not many insects are destroyed by the fire, but less matter is left for them to feed on and breed in.
60 Timeh4.
2. Five species of the Borer have been found on this estate.
ist. That which generates the moth. This has only been found in growing canes of all stages of growth, and always above ground.
2nd, 3rd and 4th, Those, which are all of the same species and only differ in size, generate the black beetles, and are to be found in rotten canes, cane-tops when they are old and when growing and in the stools below ground. The nests in which the insects lie in the chrysalis state are nearly always found at the extremity of the cane-tops deepest in the ground.
5th. That, which forms a beetle of adark brown with patches of a yellow ochre colour on the back. Its habits are the same as Nos. 2, 3 and 4. All these latter insects form avery intricate and strong nest about them when entering the chrysalis state.
3. Besides the burning alluded to previously, a gang of men have been employed cutting out such young canes as show signs of the attack of the insects, and these have been thrown into canals and sunk under water. A good many insects are killed in this way. but a great many escape. In dry Weather it might be preferable to make them into heaps on the dams, allowed to dry a little, and then covered with dry trash or grass and burnt This cutting out was commenced some six weeks ago, and during that time 246 acres have been gone over, and although experience is so short, it may be safely said that the young cane stumps look stronger than they have done for along time past, although we have had very dry weather on them lately. Fifty punt loads of tops ard water sprouts which had shown signs of the attack of the borers, have been brought home and ground, and the juice, showing a density of 10424 after being ueutralized by lime, was set up and distilled. Sufficient ram and megass were obtained to pay all expenses.
Experiments have been made with sulphuric acid and it was found that the small borers could not be killed instantly with less than 10 of acid to 100 of water and the large tucumas with 30 of acid to 100 of water. This was tried onthe insects out of the cane. The use of chemicals seems quite impracticable for the-destruction of these insects, for the moth, which isthe most serious of the evils, breeds inside the canes, and the other species, chiefly below ground and when in a chrysalis form is ‘ina nest which the chemicals will not penetrate sufficiently to kill the insect. With the exception of what is mentioned under head 3, nothing practicable suggests itself. Ants are of very great service, and it is satisfactory to notice that they are on the increase. These devour the insects when in the chrysalis state. Itis thought that the continuous droughts have had more to do with the scarcity of ants than anything else, and with two consecutive wet seasons, no doubt they will be almost as numeroue as ever, but at the same time it is thought that for many years past they have not been seen in such quantities as formerly, which, however, may be put down to the fields having been burnt off for five consecutive years.
Pln. ‘ Great Diamond,”
June 3rd, 1879. EDMUND FIELD, Manager.
GEO. PEARCE, Deputy Manager.
THE PROGRESS OF SANITATION IN BRITISH GUIANA.
By F. G. Rosz, Esq., M.B., (CANTAB.)
Mr. Rodway has informed me that there are two reasons why this article should be written.
x)
The first is that the human organism stands in constant need of encouragement.
Perpetual scoldings and upbraidings, I understand him to Say in effect, fail of their object without an occasional word or two of encour- agement to vary the monotony. .
The second is that family squabbles should be kept private ; that is to say, while we may point out en famille as badly as we choose the defects in our sanitary practice and administration, we should refrain from adver- tising them indiscriminately before the outside world.
With the validity of these contentions I am not here concerned; they are simply stated as an explanation of the title of this article, so as to make my own position clear.
The progress of sanitation may be stated in terms, firstly, of the spread of sanitary enlightenment among the population, secondly, of sanitary legislation, and thirdly, of the results which have been achieved.
The third method is, no doubt, by far the most valuable and the most impressive, but one must remember that, in the nature of things, results in these matters are slow to accrue, and it would be unfair to wait for practical results to demonstrate the real rate of sanitary progress in the community.
To take first, then, the spread of interest and enlightenment among the public,
It is becoming increasingly recognised among sanitary administra- tors that, in our political conditions, under a form of government which is largely democratic, legislation is useless where enlightenment lags behind.
It is to the lasting credit of our late Surgeon General, Dr. Wise, that he firmly grasped this essential truth, and this grasp it was that im- pelled him to enlist the co-operation of a local journalist in that publicity campaign which brought down upon his head the wrath of some local patriots not long since.
62 Timehri.
This campaign culminated in a Health Exhibition and Health Week in 1919, which was a remarkable demonstration of the way in which pub- lic interest and public enlightenment have increased in recent years.
It is no exaggeration to say that owing to this campaign of publicity there are few persons in the colony now, and especially few children, who are not able to give an intelligent and coherent account of the life-cycles of. the malarial and filarial parasites and the habits of the mosquito-carriers.
It is certain that these results carry with them some disadvantages. They tend to make of acertain percentage of the population what one may call Amateur Medical Officers of Health and so in some ways to im- pede progress.
But the net result is to keep Public Health Departments always in the limelight, so to keep them in the focus of criticism, not always intel- ligent, as to keep them always vigilant, discriminating, efficient and pro- oressive.
They cannot afford to be caught lagging behind public opinion.
People are apt to dismiss all this publicity as “talk ” but they forget that, without public enlightenment, since we cannot adopt the Prussian method, the enforcement of sanitary ordinances becomes, in these demo- cratic communities, demonstrably difficult, if not impossible of achievement.
Unfortunately, the credit of achievement goes often to the fortunate administrator who reaps the harvest long after the seed has been sown and the ground prepared by his predecessors.
The temptation is, therefore, to endeavour to secure quick returns, to point to along line of ordinances and bye-laws as a substantial con- tribution to the never-ending sanitary campaign.
And this brings us to our second criterion of progress, the criterion of sanitary legislation and administration. It is certain that in this mat- ter British Guiana is well nigh unrivalled in these latitudes. |
The last decade or so has seen the creation of a Municipal Public Health Department for Georgetown, with a whole-time Medical Officer of Health and a staff of Sanitary Inspectors and Health Visitors, of a Gov- ernment Public Health Department with a similar organization, which grows and increases in importance from year to year, a Local Government Board, from whom the Government Medical Officer of Health derives authority, a Tuberculosis Society with a dispensary of its own and a staff of visitors, a Baby-Saving League with its own Medical Officer and staft of visitors and midwives.
— — . rs
The Progress of Sanitation in British Gurana. 63
With regard to legislation, we have the Local Government Board ordinances, mosquito bye-laws, milk bye-laws, compulsory notification of enteric, tuberculosis, diphtheria, birth registration and so forth, surely a record of achievement! When we come, however, to our third and most valuable criterion, that of results achieved, the task becomes more difficult, but the progress is there none the less.
It is always a little difficult in these matters to apportion cause and effect, but, though our malarial-incidence, our enteric-incidence, and our incidence of dysentery and other intestinal diseases may show little or no reduction, we can point, at any rate, toa decrease in the incidence of tuberculosis, to a decrease in the rate of infantile mortality, and in the incidence of malaria in Georgetown.
It must not be forgotten that our present-day figures are far more accurate on the right side than they were say twenty years ago; the older figures are more likely to be under-statements than the recent ones,
It is true, of course, that the effect of the last census was to cause an apparent decrease in the mortality rates as compared with the figures based on the estimated population prior to this census. :
Nevertheless, with compulsory notification of tuberculosis and en- teric, and modern improved methods of diagnosis, it cannot be doubted that, while the recent figures are fairly accurate, the older figures are probably far below the real truth,
We cannot say, unfortunately, that all the publicity and legislation of recent years has so far led to any striking alteration in our statistics of disease and mortality.
The fact is that our great problems of preventive disease are pro- blems of such magnitude that they demand large schemes involving con- siderable expenditure which are only to be undertaken by the Govern- ment or the Municipality, such, for instance, as drinking-water supply schemes, drainage schemes and schemes for sewage disposal. Rome was not built in a day, and though we may say that these things have now been talked of for more than ‘“‘a day,” yet talk is the necessary prelude to action and the day must surely be near when these big schemes will be well under way and we shall be able to demonstrate their effects on our birth and death-rate statistics. ‘
The claim, then, is that never before has there been so much accu- rate information with regard to the mode® of infection of the preventa- ble diseases placed at the disposal of our public, that this information is being, as a rule, well-digested and assimilated and used effectively. That in the region of administration and ievislation, we can point to a com- prehensive and efficient Public Health organisation, which, though in its
64 | Timehra,
infancy and not yet strong enough to make any great impression on our problems, is yet virile, capable of and in process of expansion, and fired by enthusiasm.
We have legislation in plenty which only awaits the full force of public opinion to render it possible of enforcement.
We await only the solution of our three great problems, the problem | of drainage, of water supply and of sewage disposal.
I, for one, am confident that, with the solution of these problems there will come for British Guiana an era when none can point at us the finger of scorn as the home of filariasis, of malaria and of anchylosto- miasis, when we shall have asserted our full right to the title of “‘ The Magnificent Province,’ and malicious islanders can no longer claim to distinguish, as they do row, by his unhealthy pallor of skin and dullness of eye the European from British Guiana. .
Even now we suffer largely from our past illfame We need fear no comparison, so far as vital statistics are concerned, with any of the West Indian Islands, or with our neighbours of Dutch and French Guiana.
THE BEGINNINGS OF OUR VILLAGES.
By J. GRAHAM CRUICKSHANK.
When the black people were emancipated on the Ist of August 1838, there were already three tiny villages or hamlets in the colony.
The oldest of these—associated probably with the military fort— was situated at the Mahaica ferry. Twelve years before—in November, 1826—Dr. Michael McTurk, Deputy Fiscal of the Eastern District, reported that sugar, molasses and coffee was exposed for sale at the Mahaica ferry, contrary to law. He added that on Sunday nearly two hundred negroes collected there,—far more than were needed to supply the honest requirements of ‘a village so comparatively small.”
Another hamlet—consisting for the most part of wattle-and-daub houses, with a little shop--was to be found at the Mahaicony ferry.*
Lastly, there was a small village on the Aroabisce coast, Essequebo, which Governor Sir James Carmichael Smyth a short time before his death had named after King William LV, ‘‘ William’s Town.”
But these were all,—if we except the plantations themselves, each of which with its great-house and sick-house and negro quarters: its wide grassy spaces where the pickaninies played, and its lonely burial- ground : was a village (big or little) by itself.
Is
The beginnings of the villages—practically without exception—are to be found in the land-purchases after emancipation by the ‘‘ Freedmen of the first of August.”
These purchases—for the purpose of this paper—fall under two heads :—
(a) Plantations bought as a whole in undivided shares by a number of people;
(b) Front lots of land on plantations bought separately by individuals. |
We will dwell first on (a),—the earliest and most ambitious form of _land-purchase.
The first recorded transaction of the kind was the purchase from the executors of Hugh Rogers, deceased, of the plantation Northbrook, consisting of about five hundred acres (‘‘ situate in Courabana,” between Pln, Craig Milne and Pln. Belfield, on the East Coast, Demerara) by eighty-three freed Negroes in November, 1839. Fourteen years before, Pln. Northbrook had been a cotton estate with two hundred and eighty- five slaves, the property of Mr. James Stewart. Then cotton failed and afew cattle were grazed on the front lands. When the estate was
*It is interesting in passing to note that although the Mahaica and the Mahaicony _ferries—with their punts and bateaux—gave way to bridges upwards of seventy years ago, the old name—‘‘ the ferry ”—survives. Perhaps it willbe evergreen. People, especially at Mahaicony, commonly say when they are going to the village near the bridge :—“ ’'m going to the ferry.” Ifone asked them:—‘‘ Which ferry?” all the answer one would get (I suppose) would be :—“ The ferry, of course
66 Timehr.
bought by the black people it had nothing of any value on it except two or three tumbledown houses. The purchase-price was thirty thousand guilders. Two-thirds of this was paid down in hard cash,—‘ Spanish ”’ dollars, guilders, two-bits, bits and half-bits ‘“thrown-up” by the pur- chasers, the coins, some of them, black with the mud in which they had been buried. Transport was passed on January 4, 1841. In a petition to Governor Light the purchasers ask that they be allowed to ‘‘ name our plantation after our Good and Gracious Young Queen, Victoria,”—
a request granted by Her Majesty.
Pln. Northbrook therefore became Pln. Victoria,—and later Victoria Village. *
The next estate to be bought outright was Pln. New Orange Nassau (about 880 acres), the property of Mr. James A. Holmes, also on the Kast Coast, Demerara. This changed hands in April, 1840, the pur- chasers being a hundred and twenty-eight Negroes, labourers on Plns. Annandale, Nonpareil, Lusignan, &c. The price paid was $50,000,— $28,000 at once and the remainder before the end of the year. Transport was passed on January 2, 1841. The estate had a few good buildings on it—a new logie