ENGYGLQBEDIA
VOL. xxvr • aih :)(.» TC»M
THE
ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
ELEVENTH EDITION
FIRST edition, published in three volumes, 1768—1771.
SECOND ten 1777—1784.
THIRD eighteen 1788—1797.
FOURTH twenty 1801 — 1810.
FIFTH twenty 1815—1817.
SIXTH twenty 1823 — 1824.
SEVENTH twenty-one 1830—1842.
EIGHTH twenty-two 1853—1860.
NINTH twenty-five 1875—1889.
TENTH ninth edition and eleven
supplementary volumes, 1902 — 1903.
ELEVENTH ,, published in twenty-nine volumes, 1910 — 1911.
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in all countries subscribing to the Bern Convention
by THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS
of the UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE
All rights reserved
THE
ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA
DICTIONARY
OF
ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL
INFORMATION
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME XXVI
SUBMARINE MINES to TOM-TOM
Cambridge, England:
at the University Press
New York, 35 West 32nd Street 191 1
E.3
Copyright, in the United States of America, 1911,
by The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company.
INITIALS USED IN VOLUME XXVI. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL ;
CONTRIBUTORS,1 WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED.
A. A. R. A. ADAMS REILLY. J~
Joint-author of Life and Letters of J. D. Forbes. 1 TlSSerand, FranQOlS.
A. Bo.* AUGUSTE BOUDINHON, D.D., D.C.L.
Professor of Canon Law at the Catholic University of Paris. Honorary Canon of -4 Syllabus. Paris. Editor of the Canoniste contemporain. t
A. B. Go. ALFRED BRADLEY GOUGH, M.A., PH.D.
Sometime Casberd Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. English Lector in the \ Swabian League. University of Kiel, 1896-1905. {.
A. Ca. ARTHUR CAYLEY, LL.D., F.R.S. / Surface (in part).
See the biographical article: CAYLEY, ARTHUR. I
A. Ch. ALFRED CHAPMAN, M.lNST.C.E. /Sugar: Sugar Manufacture (in
Designer and Constructor of Sugar-Machinery. I part).
A. C. C. ALBERT CURTIS CLARK, M.A. [
Fellow and Tutor of Queen's College, Oxford, and University Reader in Latin. •{ Theocritus. • Editor of Cicero's Speeches (Clarendon Press). I
A. C. G. ALBERT CHARLES LEWIS GOTTHILF GUENTHER, M.A., M.D., PH.D., F.R.S. [
Keeper of the Zoological Department, British Museum, 1875-1895. Gold Medallist, J c ,_ . Royal Society, 1878. Author of Catalogues of Colubrine Snakes, Batrachia, Salientia, | awonmsn. and Fishes in the British Museum; &c. [_
A. C. McG. REV. ARTHUR CUSHMAN MCGIFPERT, M.A., PH.D., D.D. f
Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary, New York. Author of J ThonHnfa* a* j.*,f\ History of Christianity in the Apostolic Age; &c. Editor of the Historia Ecclesia] lneoaorel Vn Pan>- of Eusebius. I
A. D. G. ALFRED DENIS GODLEY, M.A. f
Fellow and Tutor of Magdalen College, Oxford, and Public Orator in the University. -! Tacitus (in part) Author of Socrates and Athenian Society ; &c. Editor of editions of Tacitus.
A. F. P. ALBERT FREDERICK POLLARD, M.A., F.R.HisT.S.
Professor of English History in the University of London. Fellow of All Souls Tavlor Rowland- College, Oxford. Assistant-editor of the Dictionary of National Biography, 1893- '
1901. Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1892; Arnold Prizeman, 1898. Author of England under the Protector Somerset; Henry VIII.; Life of Thomas Cranmer; &c.
A. G. MAJOR ARTHUR GEORGE FREDERICK GRIFFITHS (d. 1908). f
H.M. Inspector of Prisons, 1878-1896. Author of The Chronicles of Newgate;\ Ticket-of-Leave. Secrets of the Prison House ; &c.' I
f Tertullian (in part);
A. Ha. ADOLF HARNACK, D. PH. J Ti«««/>/,,o «r M,.™-....,*;...
See the biographical article : HARNACK, ADOLF. 1^°"? , M°Psue.stia
[Theodoret (in part).
A. He. ARTHUR HERVEY. ("
Formerly Musical Critic to the Morning Post and to Vanity Fair. Author of Masters 4 Thomas, Charles. of French Music; French Music in the Nineteenth Century.
A. H.-S. SIR A. HouTUM-ScHiNDLER, C.I.E. f Tabriz;
General in the Persian Army. Autnor of Eastern Persian Irak. \ Teheran.
A. H. S. REV. ARCHIBALD HENRY SAYCE, D.D. , LL.D., Lrrr.D. ^Susa.
See the biographical article: SAYCE, ARCHIBALD H. ,.
A. J. G. REV. ALEXANDER JAMES GRIEVE, M.A., B.D. |~
Professor of New Testament and Church History, Yorkshire United Independent I Swedenborg, Emanuel; College, Bradford. Sometime Registrar of Madras University, and Member of | Tithes (Religion). Mysore Educational Service. L
A. L. ANDREW LANG, LL.D. f Tale.
See the biographical article: LANG, ANDREW. \
1 A complete list, showing all individual contributors, appears in the final volume.
v
1995
vi INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
A. Mil. AUGUST MOLLER, PH.D. (1848-1892). f
Formerly Professor of Semitic Languages in the University of Halle. Author of H Sunnites (in part). Der Islam im Morgen- und Abendland. Editor of Orientalische Bibliographic.
A. M. F.* ARTHUR MOSTYN FIELD, F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S., F.R.MET.S. f
Vice- Admiral R.N. Admiralty Representative on Port of London Authority. J Surveying: Nautical. Acting Conservator of River Mersey. Hydrographer of the Royal Navy, 1904- 1909. Author of Hydrographical Surveying; &c.
f Sugar-bird; Sun-bird; Sun-bittern; Swallow;
A. H. ALFRED NEWTON, F.R.S. J Swan; Swift; Tanager;
See the biographical article: NEWTON, ALFRED. j Tapaculo; Teal; Tern;
I Thrush; Tinamou; [ Titmouse; Tody.
A. P. H. ALFRED PETER HILLIER, M.D., M.P. f
Author of South African Studies; The Commonweal; &c. Served in Kaffir War,
1878-1879. Partner with Dr L. S.Jameson in medical practice in South Africa till -i Swaziland (in part). 1896. Member of Reform Committee, Johannesburg, and Political Prisoner at Pretoria, 1895-1896. M.P. for the Hitchin division of Herts, 1910.
A. R. S. K. REV. ARCHIBALD R. S. KENNEDY, M.A., D.D.
Professor of Hebrew and Semitic Languages in the University of Edinburgh. J Tabernacle; Professor of Hebrew in the University of Aberdeen, 1887-1894. Editor of " Exodus " 1 Temple (in bart) in the Temple Bible. [_
A. SI. ARTHUR SHADWELL, M.A., M.D.; LL.D. f
Member of the Council of Epidemiological Society. Author of The London Water 4 Temperance. Supply; Industrial Efficiency; Drink, Temperance and Legislation.
A. Sp. ARCHIBALD SHARP.
Consulting Engineer and Chartered Patent Agent.
A. S. C. ALAN SUMMERLY COLE, C.B.
Formerly Assistant Secretary, Board of Education, South Kensington. Author of
Ornament in European Silks; Catalogue of Tapestry, Embroidery, Lace and Egyptian ] Textile-Printing: Art and
Textiles in the Victoria and Albert Museum; &c. [ Archaeology.
A. S. P.-P. ANDREW SETH PRINGLE-PATTISON, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L.
Professor of Logic and Metaphysics in the University of Edinburgh. Gifford j ,_
Lecturer in the University of Aberdeen, 1911. Fellow of the British Academy. 1 Theosophy (in part).
Author of Man's Place in the Cosmos; The Philosophical Radical;; &c.
A. Wa. ARTHUR WAUGH, M.A.
Managing Director of Chapman & Hall, Ltd., Publishers. Formerly literary adviser
to Kegan Paul & Co. Author of Alfred Lord Tennyson; Legends of the Wheel; \ Symonds, John Addmgton.
Robert Browning in " Westminster Biographies." Editor of Johnson's Lives of the
Poets.
A. W. H.* ARTHUR WILLIAM HOLLAND. f Them
Formerly Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. Bacon Scholar of Gray's Inn, 1900. I
A. W. R. ALEXANDER WOOD RENTON, M.A., LL.B. f
Puisne Judge of the Supreme Court of Ceylon. Editor of Encyclopaedia of the Laws 4 Thurlow, Lord. of England.
C. B.* CHARLES BEMONT, D.LITT. r Thierry;
See the biographical article : BEMONT, C. "[ Tnou jacques
C. C. CHARLES CREIGHTON, M.A., M.D. r
King's College, Cambridge. Author of A History of Epidemics in Britain; Jenner \ Sureerv Hislor\< and Vaccination; Plague »» India; &c. "geiy.
C. El. SIR CHARLES NORTON EDGCUMBE ELIOT, K.C.M.G., LL.D., D.C.L.
Vice-Chancellor of Sheffield University. Formerly Fellow of Trinity College
Oxford. H.M.'s Commissioner and Commander-in-Chief for the British East Africa^ Tatars (in part)
Protectorate; Agent and Consul-General at Zanzibar; Consul-General for German
East Africa, 1900-1904. [
C. F. A. CHARLES FRANCIS ATKINSON. f Supply and Transport
Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Captain, ist City of London (Royal ] (Military); Fusiliers). Author of The Wilderness and Cold Harbor. [ Thirty Years' War.
C. F. B. CHARLES FRANCIS BASTABLE, M.A., LL.D.
Regius Professor of Laws and Professor of Political Economy in the University of
Dublin. Author of Public Finance; Commerce of Nations; Theory of International 1 Token Money.
Trade; &c.
C. H. Ha. CARLTON HUNTLEY HAYES, A.M., PH.D.
Assistant Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City. Member of -| Sully. the American Historical Association.
C. H. K. CLARENCE HILL K.ELSEY, A.M., LL.B.
Vice-President and General Manager of the Bond and Mortgage Guarantee Company J Title Guarantee Companies. .New York City. Director of the Corn Exchange Bank; &c.
C. H. W. CHARLES THEODORE HAGBERG WRIGHT, LL.D.
Librarian and Secretary of the London Library. j Tolstoy, Leo.
C. J. B. CHARLES JASPER BLUNT. r
Major, Royal Artillery. Ordnance Officer. Served through Chitral Campaign, j Tirah Campaign.
C. L. K. CHARLES LETHBRIDGE KINGSFORD, M.A., F.R.HisT.S., F.S.A.
Assistant Secretary to the Board of Education. Author of Life of Henry V Editor \ Suffolk, William de la Pole, ot Chronicles of London, and Stow's Survey of London. Duke of.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
Vll
C. R. B.
c. s. s.
C. Wi.
D. Br. D. C. To. D. F. T.
D. Gi.
D. G. H.
D. H. D. H. S.
D. LI. T. D. R.-M. D. S.*
D. Sch.
E. Ar.*
E. A. F. E. Br.
E. C. B. E. G.
E. Ga. E. Gr.
CHARLES RAYMOND BEAZLEY, M.A., D.Lirr., F.R.G.S., F.R.Hisx.S.
Professor of Modern History in the University of Birmingham. Formerly Fellow of
Merton College, Oxford, and University Lecturer in the History of Geography, -i
Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1889. Lowell 'Lecturer, Boston, 1908. Author of Henry Thorfinn Karlselni.
the Navigator; The Dawn of Modern Geography; &c.
CHARLES SCOTT SHERRINGTON, D.Sc., M.D., M.A., F.R.S., LL.D. f
Professor of Physiology, University of Liverpool. Foreign Member of Academies I cvmlMji,0«ip of Rome, Vienna, Brussels, Gottingen, &c. Author of The Integrate Action of the Bynl Nervous System.
C. WlLHELM.
Author of Essays on Ballet and Spectacle.
SIR DIETRICH BRANDIS, K.C.I. E., F.R.S. (1824-1907).
Inspector-General of Forestry to the Indian Government, 1864-1883.
REV. DUNCAN CROOKES TOVEY, M.A.
Rector of Worplesdon, Surrey. Editor of The Letters of Thomas Gray; &c.
DONALD FRANCIS TOVEY. f Suite: Music;
Author of Essays in Musical Analysis: comprising The Classical Concerto, The-< Symphonic Poem; Goldberg Variations, and analyses of many other classical works. ^ Symphony.
SIR DAVID GILL, K.C.B., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., D.Sc.
H.M. Astronomer at the Cape of Good Hope, 1879-1907. Served on Geodetic
Survey of Egypt, and on the expedition to Ascension Island to determine the Solar I _, . , . •>
Parallax by observations of Mars. Directed the Geodetic Survey of Natal, Cape 1 lele c°Pe ^ Part>-
Colony and Rhodesia. Author of Geodetic Survey of South Africa; Catalogue of
Stars for the Equinoxes, 1830, 1860, 1883, 1890, 1900; &c.
DAVTD GEORGE HOGARTH, M.A. f _ .
Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, and Fellow of Magdalen College. Fellow &yrla> of the British Academy. Excavated at Paphos, 1888; Naucratis, 1899 a«d 1903 ; -j Tobruk; Ephesus> 1904-1905; Assiut, 1906-1907. Director, British School at Athens, Tokat. 1897-1900. Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899.
| Theatre: Spectacle.
•I Teak (in part).
•i Thomson, James (1700-1748).
DAVID HANNAY.
Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Author of Short History of the Royal • Navy ; Life of Emilia Castelar ; &c.
DUKINFIELD HENRY SCOTT, M.A., PH.D., LL.D., F.R.S.
Professor of Botany, Royal College of Science, London, 1885-1892. Formerly President of the Royal Microscopical Society and of the Linnean Society. Author of Structural Botany ; Studies in Fossil Botany ; &c.
DANIEL LLEUFER THOMAS.
Barrister-at-Law, Lincoln's Inn. Stipendiary Magistrate at Pontypridd and • Rhondda.
DAVID RANDALL-MACIVER, M.A., D.Sc.
Curator of Egyptian Department, University of Pennsylvania. Formerly Worcester - Reader in Egyptology, University of Oxford. Author of Medieval Rhodesia; &c.
DAVID SHARP, M.A., F.R.S., F.Z.S.
Editor of the Zoological Record. Formerly Curator of the Museum of Zoology, . University of Cambridge, and President of the Entomological Society of London. Author of " Insecta " in the Cambridge Natural History; &c.
DAVID FREDERICK SCHLOSS, M.A.
Formerly Senior Investigator and Statistician in the Labour Department of the • Board of Trade. Author of Methods of Industrial Remuneration ; &c.
REV. ELKANAH ARMITAGE, M.A.
Trinity College, Cambridge. Professor in Yorkshire United Independent College, " Bradford.
EDWARD AUGUSTUS FREEMAN, LL.D., D.C.L. See the biographical article: FREEMAN, E. A.
ERNEST BARKER, M.A.
Fellow and Lecturer in Modern History, St John's College, Oxford, and Tutor of Merton College. Craven Scholar, 1895.
RT. REV. EDWARD CUTHBERT BUTLER, M.A., O.S.B., LITT.D. f
Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath. Author of " The Lausiac History of Palladius " -| in Cambridge Texts and Studies.
Suflren, Admiral; Swold, Battle of.
Thuret, Gustave.
Swansea.
Sudan: Arcltaeology (in part).
Termite.
Sweating System.
Superintendent.
Formerly Fellow -j
Syracuse.
Tancred; Teutonic Order.
Tertiaries; Thomas of Celano. S ully-Pr udhomme ; Sweden: Literature and
Philosophy;
Swinburne, Algernon C.; Tegner, Esaias; Tennyson, Alfred; Terza Rima. f Telegraph: Commercial
.l^Jl, VJAK^Jtr*, IV-L.iiNSl.lJ.iv. j . .
Managing Director of the British Electric Traction Co. Ltd. Author of Manual ofJ. „
Electrical Undertakings ;&c. \ Telephone: Commercial
Aspects.
EDMUND GOSSE, LL.D., D.C.L.
See the biographical article : GOSSE, EDMUND.
EMILE GARCKE, M.lNST.E.E.
ERNEST ARTHUR GARDNER, M.A.
See the biographical article: GARDNER, PERCY.
I" Sunium; Tegea: Archaeology; \ Thebes (Greece); [Tiryns (in part).
viii INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
E. H.* ERNEST HARRISON, M.A.
Fellow and Lecturer in Classics, Trinity College, Cambridge. Author of Studies in i Terence (in part). Theognis.
E. He. EDWARD HEAWOOD, M.A.
Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Librarian of the Royal Geographical 1 Tanganyika, Lake. Society, London.
E. H. M. ELLIS HOVELL MINNS, M.A. J*un.; .
University Lecturer in Palaeography, Cambridge. Lecturer and Assistant Librarian 1 ineodOSia: Ancient; of Pembroke College, Cambridge. Formerly Fellow of Pembroke College. [ Thyssagetae.
E. K. EDMUND KNECHT, PH.D., F.I.C. f
Professor of Technological Chemistry, Manchester University. Head of Chemical Textile-printing* Manu-
Department, Municipal School of Technology, Manchester. Examiner in Dyeing, -j
City and Guilds of London Institute. Author of A Manual of Dyeing; &c. Editor Jacl'
of the Journal of the Society of Dyers and Colourists.
Ed. M. EDUARD MEYER, PH.D., D.LITT., LL.D. fTigranes;
Professor of Ancient History in the University of Berlin. Author of Geschichte des -j Tiridates; Alterthums; Geschichte des alien Aegyptens; Die Israeliten und ihre Nachbarstamme. I Tissaphernes
E. M. W. REV. EDWARD MEWBURN WALKER, M.A. f Theopomous
Fellow, Senior Tutor and Librarian of Queen's College, Oxford. \
E. 0.* EDMUND OWEN, F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.Sc. f
Consulting Surgeon to St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the Children's Hospital, I Surgery: Modern practice; Great Ormond Street, London. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of 1 Tetanus. A Manual of Anatomy for Senior Students. \,
E. 0. S. EDWIN OTHO SACHS, F.R.S. (Edin.), A.M.lNST.M.E. f
Chairman of the British Fire Prevention Committee. Vice-President, National Fire I Theatre: Modern stage Brigades' Union. Vice-President, International Fire Service Council. Author of 1 mechanism Fires and Public Entertainments; &c. L
E. Wh. EMMANUEL WHEELER, M.A. -j Theophrastus.
F. C. B. FRANCIS CRAWFORD BURKITT, M.A., D.D. f
Norrisian Professor of Divinity in the University of Cambridge. Fellow of the
British Academy. Part-editor of The Four Gospels in Syriac transcribed from the \ Thomas, St (in part).
Sinaitic Palimpsest. Author of The Gospel History and its Transmission; Early
Eastern Christianity; &c.
F. G. M. B. FREDERICK GEORGE MEESON BECK, M.A. [ ?uebj; Sussex> Kingdom of;
Fellow and Lecturer of Clare College, Cambridge. | Sweden: Early History;
\ Teuton!. F. G. P. FREDERICK GYMER PARSONS, F.R.C.S., F.Z.S., F.R.ANTHROP. INST. r
Vice- President, Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Lecturer on J — t,
Anatomy at St Thomas's Hospital, London, and the London School of Medicine for | Teetn<
Women. Formerly Hunterian Professor at the Royal College of Surgeons.
F. G. P.* FRANK GEORGE POPE. f Terpenes
Lecturer on Chemistry, East London College (University of London). i
F. H. H. FRANKLIN HENRY HOOPER. f Tammanv Hall
Assistant Editor of the Century Dictionary. \
F. J. G. MAJOR-GENERAL SIR FREDERICK JOHN GOLDSMID. J
See the biographical article : GOLDSMID : Family. |_
F. J. H. FRANCIS JOHN HAVERFIELD, M.A., LL.D., F.S.A.
Camden Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford. Fellow of Brasenose College. Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Censor, Student •< ThuJe. Tutor and Librarian of Christ Church, Oxford. Ford's Lecturer 1006-1007 Author of Monographs on Roman History, especially Roman Britain, &c. ' I
F. LI. G. FRANCIS LLEWELLYN GRIFFITH, M.A., PH.D., F.S.A.
Thebes (Egypt); Thoth.
Reader in Egyptology, Oxford University. Editor of the Archaeological Survey and Archaeological Reports of the Egypt Exploration Fund. Fellow of Imperial < German Archaeological Institute. Author of Stories of the High Priests of Memphis; &c.
F. P. FRANK PODMORE, M.A. (1856-1910).
Sometime Scholar of Pembroke College, Oxford. Author of Modern Spiritualism- \ Table-turning. Mesmerism and Christian Science; &c.
F. Po. SIR FREDERICK POLLOCK, BART., LL.D., D.C.L. JcwnrH
See the biographical article: POLLOCK: Family. 1
F. Pu. FREDERICK PURSER, M.A. (1840-1910). f
Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Dublin. Professor of Natural Philosophy in \ Surface (in part). the University of Dublin. Member of the Royal Irish Academy. 1
f Sudan: Geography and
F. R. C. FRANK R. CANA. Statistics, Archaeology (in
Author of South Africa from the Great Trek to the Union. ] Parti and History;
Swaziland (in part);
F.V.B. F. VINCENT BROOKS. Timbuktu; Tlemcen.
°f ^^ ^^ Br°°kS' °ay & **»• Ltd" Lithographic | Sun Copying.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
F. W. Ga. FREDERICK WILLIAM GAMBLE, D.Sc., F.R.S.
Professor of Zoology in the University of Birmingham. Formerly Assistant Director I
of the Zoological Laboratories and Lecturer in Zoology in the University of 1 Tapeworms.
Manchester. Author of Animal Life. Editor of Marshall and Hurst's Practical I
Zoology; &c.
F. W. R.* FREDERICK WILLIAM RUDLER, I.S.O., F.G.S. I Tal
Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London, 1879-1902. j President of the Geologists' Association, 1887-1889.
F. W. T. FRANK WILLIAM TAUSSIG. j Tariff.
See the biographical article: TAUSSIG, FRANK WILLIAM.
G. A. B. GEORGE A. BOULENGER, D.Sc., F.R.S. [Tadpole;
Keeper of the Collections of Reptiles and Fishes, Department of Zoology, British -\ Teleostomes. Museum. Vice-President of the Zoological Society of London.
G. G. P.* GEORGE GRENVILLE PHILLIMORE, M.A., B.C.L. /Tithes' English
Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law, Middle Temple. L
G. H. Bo. REV. GEORGE HERBERT Box, M.A.
Rector of Sutton Sandy, Beds. Formerly Lecturer in the Faculty of Theology, i Teraphim (in part). University of Oxford, 1908-1909. Author of Translation of the Book of Isaiah; &c. L
G. H. C. GEORGE HERBERT CARPENTER.
Professor of Zoology in the Royal College of Science, Dublin. Author of Insects: i Thysanoptera. their Structure and Life. I
G. H. D. SIR GEORGE HOWARD DARWIN, K.C.B., M.A., F.R.S., LL.D., D.Sc. ("
Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, and Plumian Professor of Astronomy and J Tide. Experimental Philosophy in the University. President of the British Association, 1905. Author of The Tides and Kindred Phenomena in the Solar System ; &c.
G. J. A. GEORGE JOHNSTON ALLMAN, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., D.Sc. (1824-1905). f
Professor of Mathematics in Queen's College, Galway, and in Queen's University of -j males 01 Miletus. Ireland, 1853-1893. Author of Creek Geometry from Thales to Euclid; &c.
G. L. GEORG LUNGE, PH.D., D.ING. /
I
See the biographical article : LUNGE, G.
G. Sa. GEORGE SAINTSBURY, LL.D., D.C.L. 4 Thiers.
See the biographical article: SAINTSBURY, GEORGE EDWARD BATEMAN.
G. Sn. GRANT SHOWERMAN, A.M., PH.D. I" _
Professor of Latin at the University of Wisconsin. Member of the Archaeological J °yn< Institute of America. Member of the American Philological Association. Author Taurobolium. of With the Professor; The Great Mother of the Gods; &c.
G. U. GOJI UKITA. J
Formerly Chancellor of the Japanese Legation, London. Author of Wealth O/T Tokyo. Canada (in Japanese).
G. W. P. GEORGE WALTER PROTHERO, M.A., Lrrr.D., LL.D. f
Editor of the Quarterly Review. Honorary Fellow, formerly Fellow of King's iir-n-
College, Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. Professor of History in the -j lemple, air William. University of Edinburgh, 1894-1899. Author of Life and Times of Simon de Mont- fort; &c. Joint-editor of the Cambridge Modern History.
G. W. T. REV. GRIFFITHES WHEELER THATCHER, M.A., B.D. fS,UyU,tl; I?b?T'L-
Warden of Camden College, Sydney, N.S.W. Formerly Tutor in Hebrew and Old \ Tarafa; Tha Alibi; Testament History at Mansfield College, Oxford. L Tirmidhl.
H. B. Wa. HENRY BEAUCHAMP WALTERS, M.A., F.S.A. [
Assistant to the Keeper of Greek and Roman Antiquities, British Museum. Author-^ Terracotta (in part). of The Art of the Greeks; History of Ancient Pottery; &c. I
{ Sullivan, Sir Arthur; Tennent, Sir E.- Tho. TO- iurnj. ~ t;», Theatre. Modern (in Thompson, Francis.
H. De. REV. HIPPOLYTE DELEHAYE, S. J. f Symeon Metaphrastes;
Bollandist. Joint-editor of the Ada Sanctorum and the Analecta Bollandiana. \ Synaxarium; Thecla, St.
H. D. T. H. DENNIS TAYLOR. f Telescope (in part).
Inventor of the Cooke Photographic Lens. Author of A System of Applied Optics. \
H. F. T. REV. HENRY FANSHAWE TOZER, M.A., F.R.G.S. {
Hon. Fellow, formerly Fellow and Tutor of Exeter College, Oxford. Fellow of the I Thessaly ; British Academy. Corresponding Member of the Historical Society of Greece, j Thrace. Author of History of Ancient Geography; Lectures on the Geography of Greece; &c. L
H. H. HENRI SIMON HYMANS, PH.D. f
Keeper of the BibliothSque Royale de Belgique, Brussels. Author of Rubens: saJ. Teniers (in part). vie et son aiuvre,
H. H. L. HENRY HARVEY LITTLEJOHN, M.A., F.R.C.S. (Edin.)., F.R.S. (Edin.). f
Professor of Forensic Medicine and Dean of the Faculty of Medicine in the University { Suicide. of Edinburgh. I
H. Ja. HENRY JACKSON, Lirr.D., LL.D., O.M. f
Regius Professor of Greek in the University of Cambridge. Fellow of Trinity I Thales of Miletus: Philosophy. College. Fellow of the British Academy. Author of Texts to Illustrate the History 1 of Greek Philosophy from Thales to Aristotle.
x INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
H. L. C. HUGH LONGBOURNE CALLENDAR, F.R.S., LL.D. f Thermodynamics;
Professor of Physics, Royal College of Science, London. Formerly Professor of « Thermoelectricity; Physics in McGill College, Montreal, and in University College, London. L Thermometry
H. M. C. HECTOR MUNRO CHADWICK, M.A. f Teutonic Languages;
Fellow and Librarian of Clare College, Cambridge, and University Lecturer in •< Teutonic Peoples; Scandinavian. Author of Studies on Anglo-Saxon Institutions. I Thor.
H. R. K. HARRY ROBERT KEMPE, M.lNST.C.E. J Telegraph;
Electrician to the General Post Office, London. Author of The Engineer's Year "j Telephone Book; &c.
H. S. J. HENRY STUART TONES, M.A. f
Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Trinity College, Oxford, and Director of the British J _ .
School at Rome. Member of the German Imperial Archaeological Institute. | Jneaire. Ancient (in part).
Author of The Roman Empire; &c.
H. Tl. HENRY TIEDEMANN. J ThnrhA«.ir
London Editor of the Nieuwe Rotterdamsche Courant. I 1J
H. W. B. SIR HILARO WILLIAM WELLESLEY BARLOW, Bart. / Sword: Modern Military (in
Lieut.-Col. Royal Artillery. Superintendent of the Royal Laboratory, Woolwich. 1 part).
H. W. C. D. HENRY WILLIAM CARLESS DAVIS, M.A. [
Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Fellow of All Souls College, Oxford, S Theobald. 1895-1902. Author of England under the Normans and Angevins ; Charlemagne. I
H. W. H. HOPE W. HOGG, M.A. J Thapsacus
Professor of Semitic Languages and Literatures in the University of Manchester. I
I. A. ISRAEL ABRAHAMS, M.A. f svnairof?ua United-
Reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature in the University of Cambridge. J STw. Formerly President of the Jewish Historical Society of England. Author of A 1 lam' Jacol) ben JAea' Short History of Jewish Literature; Jewish Life in the Middle Ages; Judaism; &c. LTanna.
I. J. C. ISAAC JOSLIN Cox, PH.D. C
Assistant Professor of History in the University of Cincinnati. President of the J „, , _ . Ohio Valley Historical Association. Author of The Journeys of La Salle and his 1 Taylor» Zaehary. Companions; &c. [_
J. A. F. JOHN AMBROSE FLEMING, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., r
Pender Professor of Electrical Engineering in the University of London. Fellow „ , of University College, London. Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge, •< Telegraph: Wireless and University Lecturer on Applied Mechanics. Author of Magnets and Electric Telegraphy. Currents. [_
3. A. H. JOHN ALLEN HOWE. f
Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London. Author of -I Tertiary. The Geology of Building Stones.
J. A. S. JOHN ADDINGTON SYMONDS, LL.D. f
See the biographical article: SYMONDS, J. ADDINGTON. "I Tasso.
J. Br. RIGHT HON. JAMES BRYCE, D.C.L., D.Lnr. r
See the biographical article: BRYCE, JAMES. -| Theodora.
J. Bra. JOSEPH BRAUN, S.J.
Author of Die liturgische Gewandung; &c. •{ 5urPllce;
I Tiara. J. Bt. JAMES BARTLETT. ,-
Lecturer on Construction, Architecture, Sanitation, Quantities, &c at Kine's
College, London. Member of Society of Architects. Member of Institute of Tumor 1 Timber.
{engineers.
J. C. E. JAMKS COSSAR EWART, M.D., F.R.S.
Regius Professor of Zoology in the University of Edinburgh. Swiney Lecturer on
C Museum, 1907. Author of The Multiple Origin of Horses ™egony.
J. D. Pr. JOHN DYNELEY PRINCE, PH.D. C
' New York- Took part Sumer and sumerian-
J. E. F. REV. JAMES EVERETT FRAME, A.M.
^ewaY^knu"hVProfpS^ ISSSSSS SL2S The°10giCal SCminary> { Thessalonians' EP-«es to the. J. F.-K. JAMES FITZMAURICE-KELLY, LITT.D., F.R.HiST.S.
, .., ....
NoZ°aUn M rr T ?*" f sP%nish Language and Literature, Liverpool University. Tamayo y Baus- Norman McColl Lecturer, Cambridge University. Fellow of the British Academv 1 T- ~, M , • Member of the Royal Spanish Academy. Knight Commander of the Order of 1 TlISO de Molina- Alphonso XII. Author of A History of Spanish Literature; &c. L
J. F. St. JOHN FREDERICK STENNING, M.A. r
' Oxford. Targum.
J. Ga. JAMES GATRDNER, C.B., LL.D.
See the biographical article : GAIRDNER, JAMES. -jTalbot (Family) (in par f).
3- G. F. SIR JOSHUA GIRLING FITCH, LL.D. f
See the biographical article: FITCH, SIR J. G. \ "^^^St Edward.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
XI
J. G. Fr. J. G. M. J. G. So. J. H. M.
J. H. R. J. HI. R.
J. Ja.
J. K. I. J. K. L.
JAMES GEORGE FRAZER, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., Lirr.D. f
Professor of Social Anthropology, Liverpool University. Fellow of Trinity College, i Thesmophona (in part). Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. Author of The Golden Bough; &c. L
JOHN GRAY MCKENDRICK, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S. (Edin.). f
Emeritus Professor of Physiology in the University of Glasgow. Professor of 4 Taste. Physiology, 1876-1906. Author of Life in Motion; Life ofHelmholtz; &c. L
SIR JAMES GEORGE SCOTT, K.C.I.E.
Superintendent and Political Officer, Southern Shan States. Author of Burma; The Upper Burma Gazetteer.
I Theinni; ' \ Thibaw.
JOHN HENRY MIDDLETON, M.A., Lirr.D., F.S.A., D.C.L. (1846-1896). f .
Slade Professor of Fine Art in the University of Cambridge, 1886-1895. Director! watre. Ancient (tn part); of the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, 1889-1892. Art Director of the South H Modern (in part); Kensington Museum, 1892-1896. Author of The Engraved Gems of Classical Tiryns (in part). Times; Illuminated Manuscripts in Classical and Mediaeval Times.
JOHN HORACE ROUND, M.A., LL.D.
•Balliol College, Oxford. Author of Feudal England; Studies in Peerage and Family -{ Talbot (Family) (in part). History; Peerage and Pedigree.
JOHN HOLLAND ROSE, M.A., Lrrr.D.
Christ's College, Cambridge. Lecturer on Modern History to the Cambridge J >raiievrand University Local Lectures Syndicate. Author of Life of Napoleon I.; Napoleonic 1 Studies; The Development of the European Nations; The Life of Pitt; &c.
JOSEPH JACOBS, LITT.D.
Professor of English Literature in the Jewish Theological Seminary, New York.
Formerly President of the Jewish Historical Society of England. Corresponding -j Tabernacles, Feast of.
Member of the Royal Academy of History, Madrid. Author of Jews of Angevin
England; Studies in Biblical Archaeology; &c.
JOHN KELLS INGRAM, LL.D.
See the biographical article : INGRAM, JOHN KELLS.
SIR JOHN KNOX LAUGHTON, M.A., Lrrr.D.
Professor of Modern History, King's College, London. Secretary of the Navy Records Society. Served in the Baltic, 1854-1855; in China, 1856-1859. Mathe- matical and Naval Instructor, Royal Naval College, Portsmouth, 1866-1873; Greenwich, 1873-1885. President, Royal Meteorological Society, 1882-1884. Honorary Fellow of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Fellow of King s College, London. Author of Physical Geography in its Relation to the Prevailing Winds and Currents; Studies in Naval History; Sea Fights and Adventures; &c.
Sumptuary Laws.
Tegetthoff, Admiral.
J. L. E. D. J. M.
J. Mt.
J. HcE. J. M. G.
J. M. H. J. Pu. J. P. E.
J. P. P. J. P. Pe.
J. S. F.
JOHN Louis EMIL DREYER.
Director of Armagh Observatory. Kepler; &c.
Author of Planetary Systems from Tholes to •{ Time, Measurement of.
SIR JOHN MACDONELL, M.A., C.B., LL.D.
Master of the Supreme Court. Formerly Counsel to the Board of Trade and the London Chamber of Commerce ; Quain Profess9r of Comparative Law, Uni- . versity College, London. Editor of State Trials; 'Civil Judicial Statistics; &c. Author of Survey of Political Economy ; The Land Question ; &c.
Suzerainty.
REV. JAMES MOFFATT, M.A., D.D.
Minister of the United Free Church of Scotland. Author of Historical New Testament; &c.
JOHN McEwAN, F.R.G.S., F.R.MET.Soc.
r Timothy, First Epistle to;
Jowett Lecturer, London, 1907. -I Timothy, Second Epistle to;
I Titus, Epistle to.
Tea.
JOHN MILLER GRAY (1850-1894).
Art Critic. Curator of the Scottish National Portrait Gallery, 1884-1894. of David Scott, R.S.A.; James and William Tassie.
Author J Tassie, James.
JOHN MALCOLM MITCHELL. r Terramara;
Sometime Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Lecturer in Classics, East London -j Themistocles; College (University of London). Joint-editor of Grote's History of Greece. I Thucydides (in part).
JOHN PURSER, M.A., LL.D. ("
Formerly Professor of Mathematics in Queen's College, Belfast. Member of the 1 Surface (in part). Royal Irish Academy.
JEAN PAUL HIPPOLYTE EMMANUEL ADHEMAR ESMEIN. r
Professor of Law in the University of Paris. Officer of the Legion of Honour. J _ ... Member of the Institute of France. Author of Cours elementaire dhistoire du droit 1 lame- franc,ais; Sec.
JOHN PERCIVAL POSTGATE, M.A., Lm.D. r
Professor of Latin in the University of Liverpool. Fellow of Trinity College, J Textual Criticism; Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. Editor of the Classical Quarterly, | Tibullus, Albius. Editor-in-Chief of the Corpus poetarum Latinorum; &c. L
JOHN PUNNETT PETERS, PH.D., D.D.
Canon Residentiary of the Protestant Episcopal Cathedral of St John the Divine, New York City. Formerly Professor of Hebrew in the University of Pennsylvania. • In charge of the University Expedition to Babylonia, 1888-1895. Author of Nippur, or Explorations and Adventures on the Euphrates.
JOHN SMITH FLETT, D.Sc., F.G.S.
Petrographer to the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom. Formerly Lecturer en Petrology in Edinburgh University. Neill Medallist of the Royal Society of" Edinburgh. Bigsby Medallist of the Geological Society of London.
Tigris.
• Syenite; Tachylytes;
Theralite.
xii INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
JAMES SYKES GAMBLE, M.A., C.I.E., F.R.S., F.L.S. f
Indian Forest Service (retired). Formerly Director of the Imperial Forest School -| Teak (in part). at Dchra Dun. Author of A Manual of Indian Timbers; &c. I
J. S. Ga.
at>VbchralDun.~Author of ~A Manual of Indian Timbers; &c. J. S. R.
Amicitia; &c.
Syr-Darya (River) (in part); Syr-Darya (Province) (in part) ; Takla Makan; Tambov (in part); Tarim; Tian-Shan; Tiflis (Town) (in part); Tobolsk (Government) (in part); . Tomsk (Government) (in part).
J. T. Be. JOHN THOMAS BEALBV.
Joint-author of Stanford's Europe. Formerly Editor of the Scottish Geographical Magazine. Translator of Sven Hedin's Through Asia, Central Asia and Tibet; &c.
J. T. C. JOSEPH THOMAS CUNNINGHAM, M.A., F.Z.S. ("
Lecturer on Zoology at the South- Western Polytechnic, London. Formerly Fellow J _ . of University College, Oxford. Assistant Professor of Natural History in the | University of Edinburgh. Naturalist to the Marine Biological Association.
J. W. JAMES WILLIAMS, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D. [Theatre: Law relating to
All Souls Reader in Roman Law in the University of Oxford, and Fellow of Lincoln -I Theatres; College. Author of Wills and Succession ; &c. [ Tithes (Law).
J. Wai. JAMES WALKER D.Sc., PH.D., LL.D., F.R.S.
Professor of Chemistry in the University of Edinburgh. Professor of Chemistry, I Thprmnrhpmi«itrv University College, Dundee, 1894-1908. Author of Introduction to Physical] Chemistry. I
J. W. G. JOHN WALTER GREGORY, D.Sc., F.R.S. [
Professor of Geology in the University of Glasgow. Professor of Geology and I Mineralogy in the University of Melbourne, 1900-1904. Author of The Dead Heart 1 Tasmania: Geology, of Australia; &c. I
J. W. He. JAMES WYCUFFE HEADLAM, M.A. f
Staff Inspector of Secondary Schools under the Board of Education, London. Taaffe Count* Formerly Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. Professor of Greek and Ancient •{ _ ' ' . History at Queen's College, London. Author of Bismarck and the Foundation of the Tnun-Honenstem. German Empire; &c.
J. W. L. G. JAMES WHTTBREAD LEE GLAISHER, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. f
Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. Formerly President of the Cambridge J Table, Mathematical. Philosophical Society and the Royal Astronomical Society. Editor of Messenger } of Mathematics and the Quarterly Journal of Pure and Applied Mathematics.
K. A. M.* KATE A. MEAKIN (MRS BUDGETT MEAKIN). /Tetuan; Sus.
K. L. REV. KIRSOPP LAKE, M.A. r
Lincoln College, Oxford. Professor of Early Christian Literature and New Testa- J ment Exegesis in the University of Leiden. Author of The Text of the New Testa- | Tatian. ment; The Historical Evidence for the Resurrection of Jesus Christ; &c. |_
K. S. KATHLEEN SCHLESINGER. r Svmnhonia. Tambnurinp-
Author of The Instruments of the Orchestra. Editor of The Portfolio of Musical J if* ma' lamDounne> Archaeology. \ Timbrel.
L. A. W. LAURENCE AUSTINE WADDELL, C.B., C.I.E., LL.D. /Tih»* c i\
Lieut.-Colonel I.M.S. (retired). Author of Lhasa and its Mysteries; &c. \ ™ l (tn part)-
L. J. S. LEONARD JAMES SPENCER, M.A. r Sylvanite- Sylvite*
Assistant in the Department of Mineralogy, British Museum. Formerly Scholar J of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkness Scholar. Editor of the 1 Tetradymite; Mineralogical Magazine. { Tetrahedrite; Thorite.
M. B. MONTAGU BROWNE. J
Author of Practical Taxidermy; CoMcting Butterflies and Moths. 1 Taxidermy.
M. Ba. THE HON. MAURICE BARING. f
Sometime Scholar of Trinity College, Cambridge. War Correspondent for the Morning Post in Manchuria, 1904; and Special Correspondent in Russia, 1905-1908, J Taine and in Constantinople, 1909. Author of Landmarks in Russian Literature; With the Russians in Manchuria; A Year in Russia; &c. [
M. H. S. MARION H. SPIELMANN, F.S.A.
Formerly Editor of the Magazine of Art. Member of the Fine Art Committee of the
International Exhibitions of Brussels, Paris, Buenos Aires, Rome and the Franco- Thnrnvprnft William
British Exhibition, London. Author of History of " Punch "; British Portrait- 1 Tnornyerolt> William
Painting to the Opening of the Nineteenth Century; Works of G. F. Watts R A •
British Sculpture and Sculptors of To-day; Henriette Ronner; &c.
M. J. de G. MICHAEL JAN DE GOEJE. r
See the biographical article: GOEJE, MICHAEL JAN DE. \ Thousand and one Nights.
M. M. Bh. SIR MANCHERJEE MERWANJEE BHOWNAGGREE, K.C.I.E. r
Fellow of Bombay University. M.P. for N.E. Bethnal Green, 1895-1906. Author i Takhtsingji. of History of the Constitution of the East India Company; &c.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES xiii
M. 0. B. C. MAXIMILIAN OTTO BISMARCK CASPARI, M.A. r Tegea; Theodosius I.-III. ;
Reader in Ancient History in London University. Lecturer in Greek in Birmingham J Theramenes' University, 1905-1908. I Thrasybulus!
N. M. NORMAN M'LEAN, M.A. f Syriac Language*
Lecturer in Aramaic, Cambridge University. Fellow and Hebrew Lecturer, Christ's J College, Cambridge. Joint-editor of the larger Cambridge Septuagint. B Llte
N. M.* NEILL MALCOLM, D.S.O., F.R.G.S. J Th0mas °f Marga'
Major, Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders. Served N.W. Frontier, India, 1897- f
1898; South Africa, 1899-1900; Somaliland, 1903-1904; British Mission to Fez, J. Tactics. 1905. Editor of The Science of War.
N. W. T. NORTHCOTE WHITRIDGE THOMAS, M.A.
Government Anthropologist to Southern Nigeria. Corresponding Member of the J Taboo; Socidte d'Anthropologie de Paris. Author of Thought Transference; Kinship and\ Telepathy. Marriage in Australia; &c.
0. H. D. OSKAR HENRIK DUMRATH, PH.D. f
Formerly Editor of foreign news in the Nya Dagligt AUehanda. \ Sweflen: History (in part).
0. J. R. H. OSBERT JOHN RADCLIFFE HOWARTH, M.A. f Sweden: Geography and
Christ Church, Oxford. Geographical Scholar, Oxford, 1901. Assistant Secretary j Statistics; of the British Association. I TihA* (in A/rr/1
* liucl \in yUrtJ.
Syr-Darya: River (in part); Syr-Darya: Province (in part);
P. A. K. PRINCE PETER ALEXEIVITCH KROPOTKIN.
See the biographical article: KROPOTKIN, PRINCE P.A.
P. Gi. PETER GILES, M.A., LL.D., LITT.D.
Fellow and Classical Lecturer of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and University I
"
Tambov (in part); Tatars (in part); Tiflis: Town (in part); Tobolsk: Government (in part) ; Tomsk: Government (in part).
Reader in Comparative Philology. Formerly Secretary of the Cambridge Philo- "j T. logical Society. Author of Manual of Comparative Philology.
P. G. K. PAUL GEORGE KONODY.
Art Critic of the Observer and the Daily Mail. Formerly Editor of the Artist. J FT. i / • ,\
Author of The Art of Walter Crane; Velasquez, Life and Work; &c. , 1 Temers (tn P"rt>-
P. La. PHILIP LAKE, M.A., F.G.S. r
Lecturer in Regional Geography in the University of Cambridge. Formerly of the I Geological Survey of India. Author of Monograph of British Cambrian Trilobites. -i. Sweden: Geology. Translator and Editor of Keyser's Comparative Geology.
P. M.* SIR PHILIP MAGNUS. f
M.P. for the University of London. Superintendent and Secretary of the City and
Guilds of London Institute. President of Council of College of Preceptors; Chair- J Technical Education. man of Secondary Schools Association. Member of the Royal Commission on 1 Technical Instruction, 1881-1884. Author of Industrial Education; &c.
P. McC. PRIMROSE MCCONNELL, F.G.S. r
Member of the Royal Agricultural Society. Author of Diary of a Working Farmer, j Thrashing.
P. Vi. PAUL VINOGRADOFF, D.C.L., LL.D. C
See the biographical article: VINOGRADOFF, PAUL. H Succession.
R. A. N. REYNOLD ALLEYNE NICHOLSON, M.A., LITT.D. r
Lecturer in Persian in the University of Cambridge. Sometime Fellow of Trinity
College, Cambridge, and Professor of Persian at University College, London. J Sufiism; Sunnites (in part). Author of Selected Poems from the Divani Shamsi Tabriz ; A Literary History of the ] Arabs; &c. j
R. A. Sa. RALPH ALLEN SAMPSON, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.
Astronomer Royal for Scotland. Formerly Professor of Mathematics and _ Astronomy in the University of Durham, and Fellow of St John's College,.Cambridge. •< *un. Author of Tables of the Four Great Satellites of Jupiter ; &c.
R. A. S. M. ROBERT ALEXANDER STEWART MACALISTER, M.A., F.S.A. r
St John's College. Cambridge. Director of Excavations for the Palestine Ex- I Tiberias, ploration Fund.
R. C. J. SIR RICHARD CLAVERHOUSE JEBB, LL.D., D.C.L. r_. ,., ,. A
See the biographical article: JEBB, SIR RICHARD CLAVERHOUSE. n rart>-
R. G. RICHARD GARNETT, LL.D. f „ / • ,\
See the biographical article: GARNETT, RICHARD. \ Swift» Jonathan (in part),
R. Gn. SIR ROBERT GIFFEN, F.R.S. r_
See the biographical article: GIFFEN, SIR ROBERT. -j Taxation.
R. H. C. REV. ROBERT HENRY CHARLES, M.A., D.D., Lrrr.D. (Oxon). f Testaments of the Three
Grinfield Lecturer and Lecturer in Biblical Studies, Oxford, and Fellow of Merton ' p b
College. Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Senior Moderator of Trinity J ratnarcBs; College, Dublin. Author and Editor of Book of Enoch; Book of Jubilees; Apoca- ] Testaments of the Twelve lypse of Baruch; Assumption of Moses; Ascension of Isaiah; Sec. Patriarchs.
R. I. P. REGINALD INNES POCOCK, F.Z.S. f Tarantula;
Superintendent of the Zoological Gardens, London. \ Tardigrada; Ticks.
XIV R. J. M.
R.L.*
R. Ma.
R. N. B.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
R. P. S.
R. R.
6. A. C.
S. BI.
St G. L. F.-P.
St G. S. S. K.
S. N. T.As.
T. A. A. T. A. C.
T. de L. T. H. T. H. H.*
RONALD JOHN MCNEILL, M.A. f Sussex, 3rd Earl of;
Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at:Law. Formerly Editor of the St James s J Tandy, James Napper; Gazette (London). [ Temple, Earl.
RICHARD LYDEKKER, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S.
Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India, 1874-1882. Catalogue of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in the British Museum of all Lands ; The Came A nitnals of Africa ; &c.
REV. ROBERT MACKINTOSH, M.A., D.D.
Tutor in Lancashire Independent College, Manchester.
, r Swine; Tapir (in part); 01 j ,
eer ]
AThe°be"erl Tarsier; Tiger (in part);
[ Tillodontia; Titanotheriidae
•< Theism; Theology.
ROBERT NISBET BAIN (d. 1909).
Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909. Author of Scandinavia: the Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, 1513-1900; The First Romanovs, 1613 to 1725 ; Slavonic Europe: the Political History of Poland and Russia from 1469 to 1700; &c.
Svane, Hans;
Sweden: History (in part);
Sweyn I.;
Szechenyi, Istvan, Count;
Szigligeti, Ede;
Tarnowski, Jan;
Tausen, Hans; Tessin, Count;
Theodore I.-III. of Russia;
Thokbly, Imre; Tisza, Kalman;
Toll, Johan, Count;
Tolstoy, Petr, Count.
R. PHENE SPIERS, F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A. ~f
Formerly Master of the Architectural School, Royal Academy, London. Past President of Architectural Association. Associate and Fellow of King's College, J Temnle (' * <) London. Corresponding Member of the Institute of France. Editor of Fergusson's\ mpie (in part). History of Architecture. Author of Architecture: East and West; &c.
REINHOLD ROST, C.I.E., LL.D. (1822-1896). r
Secretary of the Royal Asiatic Society, 1863-1869. Librarian at the India Office, _, .. _ London, 1869-1893. Editor of H. H. Wilson's Essays on the Religions of the Hindus; 1 Tamils; Thugs. Hodgson's Essays on Indian Subjects; &c,
STANLEY ARTHUR COOK, M.A. r
Editor for the Palestine Exploration Fund. Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac, and formerly Fellow, Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Examiner in Hebrew and J Talmud Aramaic, London University, 1904-1908. Author of Glossary of Aramaic In- scriptions; The Laws of Moses and Code of Hammurabi; Critical Notes on Old Testament History; Religion of Ancient Palestine; &c.
f Thomson, Grimur;
I Thoroddsen, Jon.
SIGFUS BLSNDAL.
Librarian of the University of Copenhagen.
ST GEORGE LANE Fox-PiTT, M.R.A.S.
Associate of King's College, London. Treasurer and Vice-President of the Moral J Theosoohv Oriental Education League and the International Moral Education Congress.
ST GEORGE STOCK, M.A. r „
Pembroke College, Oxford. Lecturer in Greek in the University of Birmingham. •{ Infrapeutae;
I Tobit, The Book of. STEN KONOW, PH.D. r
Frat^^
SIMON NEWCOMB, D.Sc., LL.D.
See the biographical article : NEWCOMB, SIMON.
| Time, Standard.
THOMAS ASHBY, M.A., Lrrr.D.
Director of the British School of Archaeology at Rome. Formerly Scholar of Christ Church, Oxford. Craven Fellow, 1897. Conington Prizeman, 10,06. Member of the imperial German Archaeological Institute. Author of The Classical Topo- graphy of the Roman Campagna.
Suessula; Sulci; Surrentum; Sutri; Sybaris;
Syracuse (in part); Taormina; Taranto; Tarentum; Tarquinii; Teggiano; Tergeste; Termini Imerese; Terracina; Tharros; Thurii; Tibur; Tiburtina, Via; Ticinum.
j Templars (in part).
THOMAS ANDREW ARCHER, M.A.
Author of The Crusade of Richard I. ; &c.
TIMOTHY AUGUSTINE COGHLAN, I.S.O.
^«£t,~GTerufor NewJ°uth W,ales- Government Statistician, New South Wales,
886-1905. Honorary Fellow of the Royal Statistical Society. Author of Wealth J Tasmania: Geography, Statistics iZnd A?™" °f Wates' Statislical Account of Australia and New Zea-\ and History.
A. TERRIEN DE LACOUPERIE, Lirr.D.
Formerly Professor of Indo-Chinese at University College, London.
THOMAS HODGKIN, D.C.L., Lrrr.D.
See the biographical article: HODGKIN, THOMAS. j Theodoric.
SIR THOMAS HUNGERFORD HOLDICH, KCMGKCIEDSc r
B^J^*»!fMB^^»»miswAr*
| Tibet (in part).
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES xv
T. H. W. T. HUDSON WILLIAMS. f
Professor of Greek in the University College of North Wales, Bangor. \ Tneogms Of Megara.
T. L. B. SIR THOMAS LAUDER BRUNTON, Bart., M.D., Sc.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.C.P. f
Consulting Physician to St Bartholomew's Hospital, London. Author of Modern "i Therapeutics. Therapeutics; Therapeutics of the Circulation; &c. (.
T. L. H. SIR THOMAS LITTLE HEATH, K.C.B., Sc.D. f
Assistant Secretary to the Treasury, London. Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, J —., «TI n
Cambridge. Author of Apollonius of Perga; Treatise on Conic Sections; The 1 TheodosiUS of TnpollS. Thirteen Books of Euclid's Elements ; &c. L
T. M. L. REV. THOMAS MARTIN LINDSAY, M.A., D.D. f
Principal and Professor of Church History, United Free Church College, Glasgow. •< Thomas a Kempis. Author of Life of Luther; &c. L
T. R. R. S. REV. THOMAS ROSCOE REDE STEBBING, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.Z.S. f
Fellow of King's College, London. Hon. Fellow, formerly Fellow and Tutor, of J Thvrostraca Worcester College, Oxford. Zoological Secretary of the Linnaean Society, 1903- 1 1907. Author of A History of Crustacea; The Naturalist of Cumbrae; &c.
T. Se. THOMAS SECCOMBE, M.A. (~
Balliol College, Oxford. Lecturer in History, East London and Birkbeck Colleges, I Swift, Jonathan (in part); University of London. Stanhope Prizeman, Oxford, 1887. Assistant Editor of the 1 Tichborne Claimant. Dictionary of National Biography, 1891-1901. Author of The Age of Johnson ; &c. L
V. W. Ch. VALENTINE WALBRAN CHAPMAN. { *V*£f)Sllgar Man«faclure «»
W. Ay. WILFRID AIRY, M.lNST.C.E. f Ta-ho.
Sometime Scholar of Trinity College, Cambridge. Technical adviser to the Standards H Department of the Board of Trade. Author of Levelling and Geodesy; &c. I
Switzerland: Geography, Government, &c., History and Literature;
Tell, William; Thun (Town):
W. A. B. C. REV. WILLIAM AUGUSTUS BREVOORT COOLIDGE, M.A., F.R.G.S., PH.D.
Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History, St David's College, Lampeter, 1880-1881. Author of Guide du Haul Dauphine; The Range of- the Todi; Guide to Grindelwald; Guide to Switzerland; The Alps in Nature and in History; &c. Editor of the Alpine Journal, 1880-1881 ; &c.
Thun, Lake of; Thurgau; Ticino (Canton); . Tirol; Toggenburg, The.
W. A. P. WALTER ALISON PHILLIPS, M.A. f SurPlice: Church of England;
Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St John's College, 1 Templars (in part) ; Oxford. Author of Modern Europe; &c. i Titles of Honour.
W. B.* WILLIAM BURTON, M.A., F.C.S. rT._ .
Chairman of the Joint Committee of Pottery Manufacturers of Great Britain.-^ ""acolla Author of English Stoneware and Earthenware ; &c. [ Tile.
W. B. B. W. BAKER BROWN. /«,,hma,in«, wr-n
Lieut.-Colonel, Commanding Royal Engineers at Malta. \ Submarine Mines.
W. B. S.* WILLIAM BARCLAY SQUIRE, M.A., F.S.A., F.R.G.S.
Assistant in charge of Printed Music, British Museum. Hon. Secretary of the J
Purcell Society. Formerly Musical Critic of the Westminster Gazette, the Saturday ] Thomas, Arthur Goring.
Review and the Globe.
W. E. Co. RT. REV. WILLIAM EDWARD COLLINS, D.D. r
Bishop of Gibraltar. Formerly Professor of Ecclesiastical History, King's College, J Tait, Archbishop; London. Lecturer at Selwyn and St John's Colleges, Cambridge. Author of The } Tp<:tampn»iim nnmini Study of Ecclesiastical History ; Beginnings of English Christianity; &c. [ 1( uu'
W. F. C. WILLIAM FEILDEN CRAIES, M.A. f cummarv jurisdiction-
Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Lecturer on Criminal Law, King's College, \ ° London. Editor of Archbold's Criminal Pleading (23rd edition). [ Summons; Sunday (Law).
W. G. F. WILLIAM GEORGE FREEMAN. f
Joint-author of Nature Teaching; The World's Commercial Products; &c. Joint- -I Tobacco. editor of Science Progress in the Twentieth Century.
W. Hy. WILLIAM HENRY. r
Founder and Chief Secretary to the Royal Life Saving Society. Associate of the) Swimmin" Order of St John of Jerusalem. Joint-author of Swimming (Badminton Library) ; 1 &c. L
W. H. F. SIR WILLIAM HENRY FLOWER, F.R.S. /Tapir (in part);
See the biographical article: FLOWER, SIR W. H. \ Tiger (in part).
W. H. P. WALTER HERRIES POLLOCK, M.A. ("
Trinity College, Cambridge. Editor of the Saturday Review, 1883-1894. Author-! Thackeray.
of Lectures on French Poets; Impressions of Henry Irving; &c.
W. J. B. REV. WILLIAM JACKSON BRODRIBB, M.A. r
Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge, and Rector of Wootton-Rivers, -I Tacitus (in Part). Wilts. [
W. L.* WALTER LEHMANN, M.D. ("
Directorial Assistant of the Royal Ethnographical Museum, Munich. Conducted J Toitecs
Exploring Expedition in Mexico and Central America, 1907-1909. Author of | publications on Mexican and Central American Archaeology.
W. McD. WILLIAM McDouGALL, M.A.
Wilde Reader in Mental Philosophy in the University of Oxford. Formerly Fellow -I Suggestion, of St John's College, Cambridge.
XVI W. M. R. W. M. Ra.
W. N. S.
W. P. A. W.RI.
W. R. S. W. Sb. W. S. R.
W. W. R.* W. Y. S.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
WILLIAM MICHAEL ROSSETTI.
Sec the biographical article: ROSSETTI, DANTE GABRIEL.
SIR WILLIAM MITCHELL RAMSAY, Lirr.D., D.C.L.
See the biographical article: RAMSAY, SIR W. MITCHELL.
/ Tintoretto; I Titian.
; Tarsus.
WILLIAM NAPIER SHAW, M.A., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S.
Director of the Meteorological Office. Reader in Meteorology in the University of London. President of Permanent International Meteorological Committee. Member .{ Sunshine, of Meteorological Council, 1897-1905. Hon. Fellow of Emmanuel College, Cam- bridge. Fellow of Emmanuel College, 1877-1906; Senior Tutor, 1890-1899. Joint Author of Text-Book of Practical Physics; &c.
LlEUT.-COLONEL WILLIAM PATRICK ANDERSON, M.lNST.C.E., F.R.G.S.
Chief-Engineer, Department of Marine and Fisheries of Canada. Member of the I B__-_|-._. r j,
Geographical Board of Canada. Past President of the Canadian Society of Civil |
Engineers.
WILLIAM RIDGEWAY, M.A., D.Sc., Lirr.D.
Disney Professor of Archaeology, and Brereton Reader in Classics, in the University of Cambridge. Fellow of Gonville and Caius College. Fellow of the British ' Academy. President of the Royal Anthropological Institute, 1908. Author of The Early Age of Greece ; &c.
Thrace: Ancient Peoples.
WILLIAM ROBERTSON SMITH, LL.D.
See the biographical article : SMITH, W. ROBERTSON.
WILLIAM SHARP.
See the biographical article: SHARP, WILLIAM.
WILLIAM SMYTH ROCKSTRO. f
Author of A Great History of Music from the Infancy of the Greek Drama to the -|
J Teraphim (in part).
- Thoreau, Henry David.
Present Period ; &c.
WILLIAM WALKER ROCKWELL, LIC.THEOL.
Assistant Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary, New York.
WILLIAM YOUNG SELLAR, LL.D.
See the biographical article: SELLAR, WILLIAM YOUNG.
Tallis, Thomas. J Toledo, Councils of.
J Terence (in part).
PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES
Succession Duty. Succinic Acid. Suez Canal.
Suffolk, Earls and Dukes of. Suffolk.
Sulphonic Acids. Sulphur. Sumatra. Sunderland. Sundew. Sunflsh. Sunstroke. Surat.
Surgical Instruments and Appliances.
Surrey.
Sussex, Earls of. Sussex. Sutherland, Earls
Dukes of. Swabia.
Sweating-Sickness. Swithun, St. Sydney (N.S.W.). Syllogism. Syracuse (N.Y.). Sze-ch'uen. Synagogue. Table. Tahiti.
and
Tampa.
Tantalum.
Tarragona.
Tattooing.
Taunton.
Tellurium.
Tenby.
Tenerifle.
Tennessee.
Tennis.
Tent.
Test Acts.
Tewkesbury.
Texas.
Thallium.
Thames.
Theodolite.
Theseus.
Thorium.
Thuringia.
Tibbu.
Tierra del Fuego.
Tiglath-Pileser.
Timor.
Tin.
Tipperary.
Titanium.
Togoland.
Toledo.
ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME XXVI
SUBMARINE MINES. A submarine mine is a weapon of war used in the attack and defence of harbours and anchorages. It may be defined as " A charge of explosives, moored at or beneath the surface of the water, intended by its explosion to put out of action without delay a hostile vessel of the class it is intended to act against." It differs from the torpedo (q.v.) in being incapable of movement (except in the special form of drifting mines, which are not moored, but move with the tide or current). But this subdivision into two distinct classes was not made till 1870. Prior to that date the teim " torpedo " was used for all explosive charges fired in the water.
Submarine mines may be divided into two main classes, con- trollable and uncontrollable, or, as they are often classified, " electrical " or " mechanical." In the first class the method of firing is by electricity, the source of the electric power whether by battery or dynamo being contained in a firing station on shore and connected to the mines by insulated cables. By simply switching off the electricity in the firing station, such mines are rendered inert and entirely harmless. In the second class, the means of firing are contained in the mine itself, the source of power being a small electric battery, or being obtained from a pistol, spring or suspended weight. In all mines of this class the impulse which actuates the firing gear is given by a ship or other floating object bumping against the mine. When mechanical mines have once been set for firing they are thus dangerous to friend and foe alike. Safety arrange- ments are employed to prevent the firing apparatus working while the mine is being laid, and clockwork is sometimes added to render the mine inactive after a certain definite time or in case the mine breaks away from its mooring. Their principal advantages, as compared with the electrically controlled mines, are cheapness and rapidity of laying. " Controllable " mines are absolutely under the control of the operator on shore, their condition is always accurately known, and if any break adrift not only is the fact at once known but the mines themselves are harmless. Another advantage is that when fired by " observa- tion " as described below, they are placed at depths which will be well below the bottom of any vessels passing through the mine field. They can thus be used in channels which have to be kept open for traffic during hostilities.
Electrical mines take rather longer to prepare and lay out than the other class, as the electrical cables have to be laid and jointed, and they require rather more skill and training in the operators employed to lay and fire the mines. Such mines represent the highest development of this form of warfare, and the details given below refer mainly to this class of mine.
Electrical mines are arranged on two systems according to the method of ascertaining the proper moment to apply the firing
XXVI. I
current to the mine cables. These methods are by " observa- tion " or by " circuit closer."
The " observation " system depends on two careful observa- tions made by an operator on shore, one of the exact position in which the mines are laid, the other of the track of hostile ships passing over the mine field. The position of the mines when laid is marked on a special chart, on which the track of ships crossing the mine field can also be plotted. When the track is seen to be crossing the position of a mine, a switch is closed on shore and the mine is fired. To allow for errors in observation such mines are fitted with large charges of explosive and are usually arranged in lines of two, three or four mines placed across the channel, all the mines in a line being fired together. Observa- tion mines are placed either resting on the bottom or moored at depths which are well below the bottom of any friendly vessels and (except that anchoring in the mine field must be forbidden for fear of injury to cables) such mines offer no obstruc- tion to friendly traffic.
In the " circuit closer " or " C.C." system, each mine contains a small piece of apparatus which is set in action by the blow of a vessel or other object against the mine. When set in action, this apparatus completes an electrical circuit in the mine, through which the mine can be fired, if the main switch on shore is closed. If it is not wished to fire, the C.C. is restored to its ordinary condition either automatically by a spring in the mine, or by an electrical device operated from the shore.
Such mines are necessarily placed near the surface, and are to this extent an interference with friendly traffic. A vessel passing by mistake through a mine field of this class would run no risk of an explosion while the mines are inactive, but might do some damage to the mines.
This class of mine is used in side channels which it is intended to close entirely, or to reduce the width of navigable channels where too wide to be defended by observation mines. Their principal advantage is that if the firing switch is closed they are effective in fog or mist, when observation mines could not be worked, and when the guns of the defence would be equally out of action. As they are fired only when close against the side of a ship, the charge can be comparatively small and the mines themselves are handy and easy to lay.
Compared with observation mines they use much less cable, as the action of the C.C. is such that only the mine which is struck can be fired. Several mines of this class can therefore share one cable from the shore, though in practice details of mooring and arrangement limit the number connected to one cable to four. A set of mines on one cable is referred to as a " group."
The arrangements for firing the mines are contained in a firing station on shore, in which is the battery or other source of
SUBSIDY— SUCCESSION
electrical power for firing, and the necessary apparatus for testing the system of mines, which is usually done daily. To let the operator in the firing station know when the C.C. of a mine has been struck and the mine is ready to fire, a small electrical apparatus is provided in the firing station for each group of mines. This arrangement strikes a bell when the C.C. is worked and also closes a break in the firing circuit. The operator can then close the main switch and fire the mine, or if acting on the order to "fire all mines that signal" he has already closed his main switch, the signalling apparatus, in the act of striking the bell, completes the firing circuit. A similar piece of apparatus is connected to each observing instrument, the completion of the circuit of any line at the observing station then gives a signal in the firing station and the firing circuit is completed.
The firing station can be on a vessel moored near the mine field, but is more usually on shore, where it can be made abso- lutely secure against any form of attack. But the observing stations must be on shore to give stability to the observing instruments, they cannot be entirely protected as they must have a small opening facing the mine field, but can be made very inconspicuous.
Any explosive can be used in submarine mines, provided adequate means are taken to explode the charge, but the explo- sive which is easiest to handle and is in most general use is wet gun-cotton with a small dry primer and detonator to start ignition. The detonators for electrical mines are on the " low tension " system, that is, firing is effected by the heating of a small length of wire called a " bridge," round which is placed a priming which ignites and detonates a small charge of fulminate of mercury.
The charge is contained in a steel mine-case, which has an " apparatus " inside to contain the electrical arrangements and the C.C. when used. Cases for observation mines are usually cylindrical in shape for mines to rest on the bottom and spherical for buoyant mines. The weight of charge is about 500 ft and the size of a buoyant case for this charge would be four feet in diameter. Cases for contact mines are spherical, about 39 in. in diameter, and can hold 100 ft of gun- cotton. They are always buoyant. Buoyancy is provided for by an air-space inside the case. Buoyant cases are moored to a heavy weight or " sinker," the connexion being by a steel wire rope, or in electrical mines, the cable itself. The cable is care- fully insulated and protected with a layer of steel wires. An earth return is used for the electrical circuit.
The employment of mines in any defence must depend entirely on the general character of the defence adopted, which will itself depend on the size and importance of the harbour to be defended and other details (see COAST DEFENCE). The role of mines in a defence is to act as an obstacle to detain ships under fire and compel them to engage the artillery of the defence. Thus mines find their greatest usefulness in the defence of har- bours with long channels of approach. Mine fields can be de- stroyed by " creeping " for and cutting the electric cables, by " sweeping " for the mines themselves with long loops of chain or rope or by destroying the mines with "countermines." To guard against any of these, the mine field should be protected by gun fire and lit at night by electric lights. As vessels sunk by mines may obstruct the channel, mines should not be used in very narrow channels.
Although the scientific development of submarine mining is the work of the last fifty years, attempts to use drifting charges against ships and bridges are recorded as early as the i6th century. Mines were used by the Americans in 1777, and in 1780 Robert Fulton produced an explosive machine which he called a " torpedo," and which was experimented with, not very successfully, up to 1815. In 1834 the Russians used mechanical mines in the Baltic, but without any marked success.
The first application of electricity to the explosion of sub- merged charges was made by Sir Charles Pasley in the destruc- tion of wrecks in the Thames and of the wreck of the " Royal George " at Spithead in 1839 and subsequent years. The first
military use of electrically-fired mines was made in the American Civil War of 1861-65 when several vessels were sunk or damaged by mines or torpedoes. From this date onwards most European nations experimented with mines, and they were actually used during the Franco-German War of 1870, the Russo-Turkish War of 1878 and the Spanish-American War of 1898. But the most interesting example of mine warfare was in the attack and defence of Port Arthur during the Russo-Japanese War (q.v.) of 1904-05 Both sides used mechanical mines only, and both suffered heavy losses from the mine warfare. Mines and tor- pedoes were first introduced into the English service about 1863, defence mines being placed in the charge of the Royal Engineers, while torpedoes were developed by the Royal Navy. Up to 1904 there were mine defences at most of the British ports, but in that year the responsibility of mines was placed on the navy, and since then the mine defences have been much reduced. (W. B. B.)
SUBSIDY (through Fr. from Lat. subsidium, reserve troops, aid, assistance, from subsidere, literally " to sit or remain behind or in reserve "), an aid, subvention, assistance granted especially in money. The word has a particular use in economic history and practice. In English history it is the general term for a tax granted to the king by parliament, and so distinguished from those dues, such as the customs dues, which were raised by the royal prerogative; of these subsidies there were many varieties; such was the subsidy in excess of the customs on wool, leather, wine or cloth exported or imported by aliens, later extended to other articles and to native exporters and importers (see TONNAGE AND POUNDAGE); there was also the subsidy which in the i4th century took the place of the old feudal levies. Apart from this application the term, in modern times, is particularly applied to the pecuniary assistance by means of bounties, &c., given by the state to industrial undertakings (see BOUNTY). Subsidies granted by the state to literary, dramatic or other artistic institutions, societies, &c., are generally styled " subventions " (Lat. subvenire, to come to the aid of).
SUCCESSION (Lat. successio, from succedere, to follow after) the act of succeeding or following, as of events, objects, places in a series, &c., but particularly, in law, the transmission or passing of rights from one to another.
In every system of law provision has to be made for a readjust- ment of things or goods on the death of the human beings who owned and enjoyed them. Succession to rights may be considered from two points of view: in some ways they depend on the personality of those who are concerned with them: if you hire a servant, you acquire a claim against a certain person and your claim will disappear on his death. But personal relations are commonly implicated in the arrangement of pro- perty: if a person borrows money, the creditor expects to be paid even should the debtor die, and the actual payment will depend to a great extent on the rules as to inheritance. Succes- sion, in the sense of the partition or redistribution of the pro- perty of a former owner is, in modern systems of law, the subject of many rules. Such rules may be based on the will of a de- ceased person. They will be found in such articles as ADMINIS- TRATION; ASSETS; EXECUTORS AND ADMINISTRATORS; INHERI- TANCE; INTESTACY; LEGACY; WILL; &c. There are cases, however, in which a will cannot be expressed; this eventuality is discussed in the present article, and there can be no doubt that it is the most characteristic one from the point of view of social conditions. It represents the view of society at large as to what ought to be the normal course of succession in the readjustment of property after the death of a citizen. We shall dwell chiefly on the customs of succession among the nations of Aryan stock. Other customs are noticed in the articles on VILLAGE COMMUNITIES; MAHOMMEDAN LAW; &c.
We have to start from a distinction between personal goods and the property forming the economic basis of existence for the family which is strongly expressed in early law. War booty, pro- ceeds of hunting, clothes and ornaments, implements fashioned by personal skill, are taken to belong to a man in a more personal way than the land on which he dwells or the cattle of a herd.
SUCCESSION
It is characteristic that even in the strict law of paternal power formulated by the Romans an unemancipated son was protected in his rights in regard to things acquired in the camp (peculium castrense) and later on this protection spread to other chattels (peculium quasi-castrense) . The personal character of this kind of property has a decisive influence on the modes of succession to it. This part of the inheritance is widely considered in early law as still in the power of the dead even after demise. We find that many savage tribes simply destroy the personal belongings of the dead: this is done by several Australian and Negro tribes (Post, Grundriss der ethnologischen Jurisprudenz, pp. 174-5) . Sometimes this rule is modified in the sense that the goods remaining after deceased persons have to be taken away by strangers, which leads to curious customs of looting the house of the deceased. Such customs were prevalent, for example, among the North American Indians of the Delaware and Iro- quois tribes. Evidently the nearer relations dare not take over such things on account of a tabu rule, while strangers may appropriate them, as it were, by right of conquest.
The continuance of the relation of the deceased to his own things gives rise in most cases to provisions made for the dead out of his personal succession. The habit of putting arms, victuals, clothes and ornaments in the grave seems almost universal, and there can be no doubt that the idea underlying such usages consists in the wish to provide the deceased with all matters necessary to his existence after death. A very char- acteristic illustration of this conception may be given from the customs of the ancient Russians, as described about 921 by the Arabian traveller Ibn Fadhlan. The whole of the personal property was divided into three parts: one-third went to the family, the second third was used for making clothes and other ornaments for the dead, while the third was spent in carousing on the day when the corpse was cremated. The ceremony itself consisted in the following: the corpse was put into a boat and was dressed up in the most gorgeous attire. Intoxicating drinks, fruit, bread and meat were put by its side; a dog was cut into two parts, which were thrown into the boat. Then, all the weapons of the dead man were brought in, as well as the flesh of two horses, a cock and a chicken. The concubine of the de- ceased was also sacrificed, and ultimately all these objects were burned in a huge pile, and a mound thrown up over the ashes. This description is the more interesting because it starts from a division of the goods of the deceased, one part of them being affected, as it were, to his personal usage. This rule continues to be observed in Germanic law in later times and became the starting point of the doctrine of succession to personal property in English law. According to Glanville (vii. 5, 4) the chattels of the deceased have to be divided into three equal parts, of which one goes to his heir, one to his wife and one is reserved to the deceased himself. The same reser- vation of the third to the deceased himself is observed in Magna Charta (c. 26) and in Bracton's statement of Common Law (fol. 60), but in Christian surroundings the reservation of " the dead man's part " was taken to apply to the property which had to be spent for his soul and of which, accordingly, the Church had to take care. This lies at the root of the com- mon law doctrine observed until the passing of the Court of Probate Act 1857. On the strength of this doctrine the bishop was the natural administrator of this part of the personalty of the deceased.
The succession to real property, if we may use the English legal expression, is not governed by such considerations or the needs of the dead. Roughly speaking, three different views may be taken as to the proper readjustment in such cases. Taking the principal types in a logical sequence, which differs from the historical one, we may say that the aggregate of things and claims relinquished by a deceased person may: (i) pass to relatives or other persons who stood near him in a way deter- mined by law. Should several persons of the kind stand equally near in the eye of the law the consequence would be a division of the inheritance. The personal aspect of succession rules in such systems of inheritance. (2) The deceased may be
considered as a subordinate member of a higher organism — a kindred, a village, a state, &c. In such a case there can be no succession proper as there has been no individual property to begin with. The cases of succession will be a relapse of certain goods used by the member of a community to that community and a consequent rearrangement of rights of usage. The law of succession will again be constructed on a personal basis, but this basis will be supplied not by the single individual whose death has had to be recorded but by some community or union to which this individual belonged. (3) The aggregate of goods and claims constituting what is commonly called an inheritance may be considered as a unit having an existence and an object of its own. The circumstance of the death of an individual owner will, as in case 2, be treated as an accidental fact. The unity of the inheritance and the social part played by it will con- stitute the ruling considerations in the arrangement of succession. The personal factor will be subordinated to the real one.
In practice pure forms corresponding to these main concep- tions occur seldom, and the actual systems of succession mostly appear as combinations of these various views. We shall try to give briefly an account of the following arrangements: (i) the joint family in so far as it bears on succession; (2) voluntary associations among co-heirs; (3) division of inheri- tance; (4) united succession in the shape of primogeniture and of junior right.
The large mass of Hindu juridical texts representing customs and doctrines ranging over nearly 5000 years contains many indications as to the existence of a joint family which was considered as the corporate owner of property and therefore did not admit in principle of the opening of succession through the death of any of its members. The father or head of such a joint family was in truth only the manager of its property during lifetime, and though on his demise this power and right of management had to be regulated anew, the property itself could not be said to pass by succession: it remained as formerly in the joint family itself. In stating this abstract doctrine we have to add that our evidence shows us in practice only characteristic consequences and fragments of it, but that we have not the means of observing it directly in a consistent and complete shape during the comparatively recent epochs which are reflected in the evidence. It is even a question whether such a doctrine was ever absolutely enforced in regard to chattels: even in the earliest period of Hindu law articles of personal apparel and objects acquired by personal will and strength fell to a great extent under the conception of separate property. Gains of science, art and craft are mentioned in early instances as subject to special ownership and corresponding rules of personal succession are framed in regard to them (Jolly, Tagore lectures on Partition, Inheritance and Adoption, 94). But on the other hand there are certain categories of movable goods which even in later law are considered as belong- ing to the family community and incapable of partition, e.g. water, prepared food, roads, vehicles, female slaves, property destined for pious uses and sacrifices, books. When law became rationalized these things had to be sold in order that the pro- ceeds of the sale should be divided, but originally they seem to have been regarded as owned by the joint family though used by its single members. And as to immovables — land and houses — they were demonstrably excluded in ancient customary law from partition among co-heirs.
In Greek law the most drastic expression of the joint family system is to be found in the arrangements of Spartan households, where brothers clustered round the eldest or " keeper of the hearth"1 (taTiairaniov) , and not only the management of family property but even marriages were dependent on the unity of the shares and on the necessity of keeping down the offspring of the younger brothers. With the Romans there are hardly any traces of a primitive family community excluding succession, but the Celtic tribal system was to a great extent based on this fundamental conception (Seebohm, Tribal System in Wales).
1 The term illustrates the intimate connexion between inheritance and household religion in ancient Aryan custom.
SUCCESSION
During three generations the offspring of father, grandfather and great-grandfather held together in regard to land. The consequence was that, although separate plots and houses were commonly reserved for the uses of the smaller families included within the larger unit, the death of the principal brought about an equalization of shares first per slirpes and ultimately per capita until the final break-up of the community when it reached the stage of the great-grandsons of the original founder. But the most elaborate system of family ownership is to be observed in the history of the latest comers among the Aryan races — the Slavs. In the backward mountain regions which they occupied in the Balkan Peninsula and in the wilderness of the forests and moors of Eastern Europe they developed many characteristic tribal institutions and, among these, the joint family, the Zadruga, inokoshtina. The huge family communities of the southern Slavs have been described at length by recent observers, and there can be no doubt that their roots go back to a distant past (see VILLAGE COMMUNITIES). There is no room in them for succession proper: what has to be provided for is the con- tinuity of business management by elders and the repartition of rights of usage and maintenance, a repartition largely depen- dent on varying customs and on the policy of the above-men- tioned elders. In Russia the so-called large family appears as a much less extensive application of the same idea. It extends rarely over more than three generations, but even as a cluster of members gathering around a grandfather or a great-uncle it presents an arrangement which hampers greatly private enter- prise and staves off succession until the moment when the great household breaks up between the descendants of a great-grand- father.
In Germanic law we catch a glimpse of a state of things in which side relations were not admitted to succession at all. The Prankish Edict of Chilperic (A.D. 571) tells us that if some- body died without leaving sons or daughters, his brother was to succeed him and not his neighbours (non vicini). This has to be construed as a modification of the older rule according to which the neighbours succeeded and not the brother. Under " neighbours " we cannot understand merely people connected with a person by proximity of settlement, but rather his kinsmen in their usual capacity of neighbours. The fact that kinsmen forming a settlement have precedence of such near relations as the brothers is characteristic enough, especially, as even the succession of sons and daughters is mentioned in a way which shows that there was still some doubt whether neighbouring kinsmen should not take inheritance instead of the latter. These are systems of a very archaic arrangement based on a close tribal community between the members of a kindred. Such a community is not apparent in later legal custom, but there are many signs of a close union between members of the same family. The law of Scania, a province of southern Sweden, shows us a group settled around a grandfather. His sons even when married hold part of the property under him and it is with some difficulty that they and their wives succeed in separating some of the goods acquired by personal work or brought in by marriage from the rest of the household property (Scanian Law, Danish Text i. 5). The same arrangement appears in Lombard law as regards brothers who remain settled in a common house (Edict of Rothari c. 167). Of course, in all such cases, there could be no real inheritance and succession, but merely the stepping in of the next generation into the rights and duties of the representative of an older generation on the latter's demise. In legal terminology it is a case of accretion and not of succession.
The next stage in the development of succession is presented by an arrangement which was common in Germany, viz. by the management of property under the rule of so-called Ganerb- schaft. Ganerben is the same as the Latin coheredes, com- participes, consortes. A capitulary of 818 mentions such com- munities of heirs holding in common (cf. Boretius Capitularia, i. 282). While the community lasted none of the shareholders could dispose of any part of the property by his single will. Legally and economically all transactions had to proceed from
common consent and common resolve. This did not preclude the possibility of any one among the shareholders claiming his own portion, in which case part of the property had to be meted out to him according to fair computation (swascara). There was no legal constraint over the shareholders to remain in common: division could be brought about either by common consent or by claims of individuals, and yet the constant occur- rence of these settlements of co-heirs shows that as a matter of fact it was more profitable to keep together and not to break up the unit of property by division. The customary union of co-heirs appears in this way as a corrective of the strict legal principle of equal rights between heirs of the same degree. In English practice the joint management of co-heirs is not so fully described, but there can be no doubt that under the older Saxon rule admitting heirs of the same degree to equal rights in suc- cession the interests of economic efficiency were commonly pre- served by the carrying on of common husbandry without any realization of the concurrent claims which would have broken up the object of succession. This accounts for the fact that notwithstanding the prevalence among the early English of the rule admitting all the sons or heirs in the same position to equal shares in the inheritance, the organic units of hides, yardlands, &c. are kept up in the course of centuries. In the management of so-called gavelkind succession in Kent partition was legally possible and came sometimes to be effected, but there was the customary reaction against it in the shape of keeping up the " yokes " and " sulungs." A trace of the same kind of union between co-heirs appears in the so-called parage communities so often mentioned in Domesday Book.
In all these cases the principle of union and joint manage- ment is kept up by purely economic means and considerations. The legal possibility of partition is admitted by the side of it. It is interesting to watch two divergent lines of further develop- ment springing from this common source; on the one side we see the full realization of individual right resulting in frequent divisions; on the other side we watch the rise of legal restraints on subdivision resulting in the establishment, in respect of certain categories of property, of rules excluding the plurality of heirs for the sake of preserving the unity of the household. The first system is, of course, most easily carried out in countries where individualistic types of husbandry prevail. In Europe it is especially prevalent in the south with its intense cultivation of the arable and its habits of wine and olive growing. We shall not wonder, therefore, that the unrestricted subdivision among heirs is represented most completely by Roman law. Not to speak of the fact that already in the XII. Tables the principal mode of inheritance was considered to be inheritance by will while intestate succession came in as a subsidiary ex- pedient, we have to notice that there is no check on the dis- persion of property among heirs of the same degree. The only survival of a regime of family community may be found in the distinction between heredes sui (heirs of their own) and heredes exlranei (outside heirs of the deceased). The first entered by their own right and took possession of property which had belonged to them potentially even during their ancestor's life. The latter drew their claims from their relationship to the • deceased and this did not give them a direct hold on the property . in question. Apart from that the civil law of ancient Rome favoured complete division and the same principle is represented in all European legislation derived from Roman law or strongly influenced by it. Sometimes, as in the French Code Civil, even the wish of the owner cannot alter the course of such succession as no person can make a will depriving any of his children of their legal share.
In full contrast with this mode of succession prevailing in romanized countries we find the nations proceeding from Germanic stock and strongly influenced by feudalism developing two different kinds of restraints on subdivision. In Scandi- . navian law this point of view is expressed by the Norwegian customs as to Odal. The principal estates of the country, which, according to the law of the Gulathing have descended through five generations in the same family, cannot be dispersed and
SUCCESSION DUTY
alienated at pleasure. They are considered as rightly belong- ing to the kindred with which a historical connexion has been established. In order to keep these estates within the kindred they are to descend chiefly to men: women are admitted to property in them only in exceptional cases. Originally it is only the daughter of a man who has left no sons and the sister of one who has left no children and no brothers that are admitted to take Odal as if they were men. Nieces and first-cousins are admitted in the sense that they have to pass the property to their nearest male heir. They may, in certain eventualities, be bought out by the nearest male relative. A second peculiarity of Odal consists in the right of relations descending from one of the common ancestors to prevent strangers from acquiring Odal estate. Any holder of such an estate who wants to sell it in its entirety or in portion has first to apply te his relatives and they may acquire the estate at the price proposed by a stranger less one-fifth. Even if no relative has taken advantage of this privilege an Odal estate sold to a stranger may be bought back into the family by compulsory redemption if the relatives subsequently find the means and have the wish to resort to such redemption. Odal right does not curtail the claims of the younger sons or of any heirs in a similar position. As a matter of fact, however, customary succession in Norwegian peasant families sets great price on holding the property of the household well together. It is keenly felt that a gaard (farm) ought not to be parcelled up into smaller holdings, and in the common case of several heirs succeeding to the farm, they generally make up among themselves who is to remain in charge of the ancestral household: the rest are compensated in money or helped to start on some other estate or perhaps in a cottage by the side of the principal house. In medieval England, France and Ger- many the same considerations of economic efficiency are felt as regards the keeping up of united holdings, and it may be said that the lower we get in the scale of property the stronger these considerations become. If it is possible, though not perhaps profitable, to divide the property of a large farm, it becomes almost impossible to break-up the smaller units — so-called yardlands and oxgangs. Through being parcelled up into small plots, land loses in value, and, as to cattle, it is impossible to divide one ox or one horse in specie without selling them. No wonder that we find practices and customs of united suc- cession arising in direct contradiction with the ancient rule that all heirs of the same degree should be admitted to equal shares. Glanville mentions expressly that the socagers of his time held partly by undivided succession and partly by divided inherit- ance. The relations of feudalism and serfdom contributed strongly towards creating such individual tenancies. It was certainly in the interest of the lord that his men, whether holding a military fief or an agricultural farm, should not weaken the value of their tenancies by dispersing the one or the other among heirs. But apart from these interests of over-lords there was the evident self-interest of the tenants themselves and therefore the point of view of unification of holdings is by no means confined to servile tenements or to military fiefs. The question whether the successor should be the eldest son or the youngest son is a secondary one. The latter practice was very prevalent all through Europe and pro- duced in England what is termed the Borough English rule. The quaint name has been derived from the contrast in point of succession between the two parts of the borough of Nottingham. The French burgesses transmitted their tenements by primogeniture, while in the case of the English tenants the youngest sons succeeded. A usual explanation of this passage of the holdings to the youngest is found in the fact that the youngest son remains longest in his father's house, while the elder brothers have opportunities of going out into the world at a time when the father is still alive and able to take care of his land. This is well in keeping with the view that customs of united succession arise in connexion with compensa- tion provided for co-heirs waiving their claims in regard to settlement in the original household. The succession of the youngest appears also very characteristic in so far as it illustrates
the break up into small tenancies, as the youngest in the family is certainly not a fit representative of hierarchy and authority and could not have been meant to rule anything but his own restricted household.
One more feature of the ancient law of succession has to be noticed in conclusion, viz. the exclusion of women from inheritance in land. There can be no doubt that as regards movable goods women held property and transmitted it on a par with males right from the earliest time. According to Germanic conception personal ornaments and articles of household furni- ture are specially effected to their use and follow a distinct line of succession from woman to woman (Gerade). Norse law puts women and men on the same footing as to all forms of property equated to " movable money " (Losore); but as to land there is a prevalent idea that men should be privileged. Women are admitted to a certain extent, but always placed behind men of equal degree. Frankish and Lombard law originally excluded women from inheritance in land, and this exclusion seems as ancient as the patriarchial system itself, whatever we may think about the position of affairs in prehistoric times when rules of matriarchy were prevalent. A common-sense explanation of one side of this doctrine is tendered by the law of the Thurin- gians (Lex Anglorum et Werinorum,c. 6). It is stated there that inheritance in land goes with the duty of taking revenge for the homicide of relatives and with the power of bearing arms. One of the most potent adversaries of this system of exclusion proved to be the Church. It favoured all through the view that land should be transmitted in the same way as money or chattels. A Frankish formula (Marculf) shows us a father who takes care to endow his daughter with a piece of land according to natural affection in spite of the strict law of his tribe. Such instruments were strongly backed by the Church, and the view that women should be admitted to hold land on certain occasions had made its way in England as early as Anglo-Saxon times.
AUTHORITIES. — Mayne, Hindu Law and Usage (1878); Julius Jolly, Outlines of a History of the Hindu Law of Partition, Inheritance and Adoption (Tagpre law lectures) (Calcutta, 1883); B. W. Leist, Altarisches jus Civile (1892); F. Seebohm, Tribal System in Wales (2nd ed., 1904) ; the same, Tribal Custom in Anglo-Saxon Law (1902) ; Arbois de Jubainville, La Famille cellique (1906) ; A. Heusler, Institutionen des deutschen Privatrechts, i. (1885); H. Brunner, Deutsche Rechtsgeschichte (vol. i., and. ed., 1907) ; Jul. Picker, Unter- suchungen zur Erbepfolge (Innsbruck, 1891 ft.); Kraus, Sitte und Brauch der Sud-Slaven; Pollock and Maitland, History of English Law, ii. (1895) ; Kenny, Law of Primogeniture (1878) ; P. Vinogradoff, The Growth of the Manor (1905); Brandt, Forelaesninger om norsk Retshistorie Kristiania (1880); Boden, "Das Odalsrecht " in the Zeitschrift der Savignystiftung fur Rechtsgeschichte (Ger. Abth. xxiii.); H. Brunner, "Der Totentheil " in the same Zeitschrift (Ger. Abth. xix.); L. Mitteis, Romisches Privatrecht (1908), vol. i.; Fustel de Coulanges, La CM antique (4th ed., 1872).
(P. Vi.)
SUCCESSION DUTY, in the English fiscal system, "a tax placed on the gratuitous acquisition of property which passes on the death of any person, by means of a transfer from one person (called the predecessor) to another person (called the successor)." In order properly to understand the present state of the English law it is necessary to describe shortly the state of affairs prior to the Finance Act 1894 — an act which effected a considerable change in the duties payable and in the mode of assessment of those duties.
The principal act which first imposed a succession duty in England was the Succession Duty Act 1853. By that act a duty varying from i to 10 % according to the degree of con- sanguinity between the predecessor and successor was imposed upon every succession which was defined as " every past or future disposition of property by reason whereof any person has or shall become beneficially entitled to any property, or the income thereof, upon the death of any person dying after the time appointed for the commencement of this act, either immediately or after any interval, either certainly or contin- gently, and either originally or by way of substitutive limitation and every devolution by law of any beneficial interest in pro- perty, or the income thereof, upon the death of any person dying after the time appointed for the commencement of this act to
SUCCINIC ACID
any other person in possession or expectancy." The property which is liable to pay the duty is in realty or leasehold estate in the United Kingdom and personalty — not subject to legacy duty — which the beneficiary claims by virtue of English, Scottish or Irish law. Personalty in England bequeathed by a person domiciled abroad is not subject to succession duty. Successions of a husband or a wife, successions where the princi- pal value is under £100, and individual successions under £20, are exempt from duty. Leasehold property and personalty directed to be converted into real estate are liable to succession, not to legacy duty. Special provision is made for the collection of duty in the cases of joint tenants and where the successor is also the predecessor. The duty is a first charge on property, but if the property be parted with before the duty is paid the liability of the successor is transferred to the alienee. It is, therefore, usual in requisitions on title before conveyance, to demand for the protection of the purchaser the production of receipts for succession duty, as such receipts are an effectual protection notwithstanding any suppression or misstatement in the account on the footing of which the duty was assessed or any insufficiency of such assessment. The duty is by this act directed to be assessed as follows: on personal property, if the successor takes a limited estate, the duty is assessed on the principal value of the annuity or yearly income estimated according to the period during which he is entitled to receive the annuity or yearly income, and the duty is payable in four yearly instalments free from interest. If the successor takes absolutely he pays in a lump sum duty on the principal value. On real property the duty is payable in eight half-yearly instal- ments without interest on the capital value of an annuity equal to the annual value of the property. Various minor changes were made. By the Customs and Inland Revenue Act 1881, personal estates under £300 were exempted. By the Customs and Inland Revenue Act 1888 an additional £% was charged on successions already paying i% and an additional ij% on successions paying more than i %. By the Customs and Inland Revenue Act 1889 an additional duty of i% called estate duty was payable on successions over £10,000.
The Finance Acts 1894 and 1909 effected large changes in the duties payable on death (for which see ESTATE DUTY; LEGACY). As regards the succession duties they enacted that payment of the estate duties thereby created should include payment of the additional duties mentioned above. Estates under £1000 (£2000 in the case of widow or child of deceased) are exempted from payment of any succession duties. The succession duty payable under the Succession Duty Act 1853 was in all cases to be calculated according to the principal value of the property, i.e. its selling value, and though still payable by instalments interest at 3% is chargeable. The additional succession duties are still payable in cases where the estate duty is not charged, but such cases are of small importance and in practice are not as a rule charged.
United States. — The United States imposed a succession duty by the War Revenue Act of 1898 on all legacies or distributive shares of personal property exceeding $10,000. It is a tax on the privilege of succession. Devises or distributions of land are not affected by it. The rate of duty runs from 75 cents on the $100 to $5 on the $100, if the legacy or share in question does not exceed $25,000. On those of over that value the rate is multiplied Ij times on estates up to $100,000, twofold on those from $100,000 to $500,000, 2j times on those from $500,000 to a million, and threefold for those exceeding a million. This statute has been supported as constitutional by the Supreme Court. Many of the states also impose succession duties, or transfer taxes; generally, however, on collateral and remote successions; sometimes progressive, according to the amount of the succession. The state duties generally touch real estate successions as well as those to personal property. If a citizen of state A owns registered bonds of a corporation chartered by state B, which he has put for safe keeping in a deposit vault in state C, his estate may thus have to pay four succession taxes, one to state A, to which he belongs and which, by legal fiction, is the seat of all his personal property; one to state B, for permitting the transfer of the bonds to the legatees on the books of the corporation; one to state C, for allowing them to be removed from the deposit vault for that purpose; and one to the United States.
SUCCINIC ACID, C2IL.(CO,H)2. Two acids torresponding to this empirical formula are known — namely ethylene suc- cinic acid, HOsC-CHj-Crk-COzH and ethylidene succinic acid CHrCH(CO2H)j.
Ethylene succinic acid occurs in amber, in various resins and lignites, in fossilized wood, in many members of the natural orders of Papaveraceae and Compositae, in unripe grapes, urine and blood. It is also found in the thymus gland of calves and in the spleen of cattle. It may be prepared by the oxidation of fats and of fatty acids by nitric acid, and is also a product of the fermentation of malic and tartaric acids. It is usually "obtained by the distillation of amber, or by the fermentation of calcium malate or ammonium tartrate. Synthetically it may be obtained by reducing malic or tartaric acids with hydriodic acid (R. Schmitt, Ann., 1860, 114, p. 106; V. Dessaignes, ibid., 1860, 115, p. 120; by reducing fumaric and maleic acids with sodium amalgam; by heating bromacetic acid with silver to 130° C.; in small quantity by the oxidation of acetic acid with potassium persulphate (C. Moritz and R. Wolffenstein, Ber., 1899, 32, p. 2534); by the hydrolysis of succinonitrile (from ethylene dibromide) C2KU->C2II<Br2-*C2H4(CN)2->C2H4(COzH)J; by the hydrolysis of /3-cyanpropionic ester; and by the condensation of sodiomalonic ester with monochloracetic ester and hydrolysis of the resulting ethane tricarboxylic ester (RC^C^CH- CHj- CO2R; this method is applicable to the preparation of substituted succinic acids. It is also produced by the electrolysis of a concentrated solution of potassium ethyl malonate.
It crystallizes in prisms or plates which melt at 185° C. and boil at 235° C. with partial conversion into the anhydride. It is readily soluble in water. Aqueous solutions of the acid are decomposed in sunlight by uranium salts, with evolution of carbon dioxide and the formation of propionic acid. Potassium permanganate, in acid solution, oxidizes it to carbon dioxide and water. The sodium salt on distillation with phosphorus trisulphide gives thiophene. The esters of the acid condense readily with aromatic aldehydes and ketones to form -y-di- substituted itaconic acids and 7-alkylen pyrotartaric acids (H. Stobbe, Ann., 1899, 308, p. 71). -y-Oxyacids are formed when aldehydes are heated with sodium succinate and sodium acetate. Numerous salts of the acid are known, the basic ferric salt being occasionally used in quantitative analysis for the separation of iron from aluminium.
Succinyl chloride, obtained by the action of phosphorus penta- chloride on succinic acid, is a colourless liquid which boils at 190° C. In many respects it behaves as though it were dichlorbutyro-lactone,
jH^
; e.g. on reduction it yields butyro-lactone, and when
condensed with benzene in the presence of aluminium chloride it yields chiefly -y-diphenylbutyro-lactone. Succinic anhydride, C2H4(CO)2O, is obtained by heating the acid or its sodium salt with acetic anhydride; by the action of acetyl chloride on the barium salt; by distilling a mixture of succinic acid and succinyl chloride, or by heating succinyl chloride with anhydrous oxalic acid. It crystallizes in plates which melt at 120° C., and distils without decomposition. It is slowly dissolved by water with the formation of the acid. It combines readily with the meta-aminophenols to form rhodamines, which are valuable dyestuffs. Heated in a current of ammonia ' it gives succinimide, which is also obtained on heating acid ammon- ium succinate. It crystallizes in colourless octahedra which melt at 125-126° C., and is easily soluble in water. When warmed with baryta water it yields succinamic acid, HOjC-CHj-CHj-CONHj; and with alcoholic ammonia at 100° C. it gives succinamide. The imino hydrogen atom is easily replaced by metals. Distillation with zinc dust gives pyrrol (g.t>.). By the action of bromine in alkaline solution it is converted into 0-aminopropionic acid. Succinamide, C2H4(CONH2)2, best obtained by the action of ammonia on diethyl succinate, crystallizes in needles which melt at 242- 243° C., and is soluble in hot water. Succinonitrile, CjH4(CN)i, is obtained by the action of potassium cyanide on ethylene dibromide or by the electrolysis of a solution of potassium cyan- acetate. It is an amorphous solid which melts at 54—55° C. On reduction with sodium in alcoholic solution it yields tetraethylene diamine (putrescein) and pyrollidine.
Methyl succinic acid (pyrotartaricacid),HO2C-CHj-CH(CH>)-CO8H, is formed by the dry distillation of tartaric acid ; by heating pyruvic acid with concentrated hydrochloric acid to 180° C. ; by the reduction of citraconic and mesaconic acids with sodium amalgam; and by
SUCHER— SUCKLING
the hydrolysis of 0-cyanbutyric acid. It crystallizes in small prisms which melt at 112 C. and are soluble in water. It forms an anhydride when heated. The sodium salt on heating with phosphorus trisulphide yields methylthiophen.
Ethylidene succinic acid or isosuccinic acid, CHj-CH(CO2H)j, is produced by the hydrolysis of o-cyaupropionic acid and by the action of methyl iodide on sodio-malonic ester. It crystallizes in prisms which melt at 120° C. (T. Salzer, Journ. prak. Ghent., 1898 [2], 57, p. 497), and dissolve in water. It does not yield an anhydride, but when heated loses carbon dioxide and leaves a residue of propionic acid. It may be distinguished from the isomeric ethylene succinic acid by the fact that its sodium salt does not give a precipitate with ferric chloride.
SUCHER, ROSA (1849- ), German opera singer, nte Hasselbeck, was the wife of Josef Sucher (1844-1908), a well- known conductor and composer. They were married in 1876, when she had already had various engagements as a singer and he was conductor at the Leipzig city theatre. Frau Sucher soon became famous for her performances in Wagner's operas, her seasons in London in 1882 and 1892 proving her great capacity both as singer and actress; in 1886 and 1888 she sang at Bayreuth, and in later years she was principally associated with the opera stage in Berlin, retiring in 1903. Her magnificent rendering of the part of Isolde in Wagner's opera is especially remembered.
SUCHET, LOUIS GABRIEL, Due D'ALBUFERA DA VALENCIA (1770-1826), marshal of France, one of the most brilliant of Napoleon's generals, was the son of a silk manufacturer at Lyons, where he was born on the 2nd of March 1770. He originally intended to follow his father's business; but having in 1792 served as volunteer in the cavalry of the national guard at Lyons, he manifested military abilities which secured his rapid promotion. As chef de balaillon he was present at the siege of Toulon in 1793, where he took General O'Hara prisoner. During the Italian campaign of 1796 he was severely wounded at Cerea on the nth of October. In October 1797 he was appointed to the command of a demi-brigade, and his services, under Joubert in the Tirol in that year, and in Switzerland under Brune in 1 797-98, were recognized by his promotion to the rank of general of brigade. He took no part in the Egyptian campaign, but in August was made chief of the staff to Brune, and restored the efficiency and discipline of the army in Italy. In July 1799 he was made general of division and chief of staff to Joubert in Italy, and was in 1800 named by Massena his second in command. His dexterous resistance to the superior forces of the Austrians with the left wing of Massena's army, when the right and centre were shut up in Genoa, not only prevented the invasion of France from this direction but contributed to the success of Napoleon's crossing the Alps, which culminated in the battle of Marengo on the i4th of June. He took a prominent part in the Italian campaign till the armistice of Treviso. In the campaigns of 1805 and 1806 he greatly increased his reputation at Austerlitz, Saalfeld, Jena, Pultusk and Ostrolenka. He obtained the title of count on the igth of March 1808, married Mile de Saint Joseph, a niece of Joseph Bonaparte's wife, and soon afterwards was ordered to Spain. Here, after taking part in the siege of Saragossa, he was named commander of the army of Aragon and governor of the province, which, by wise and (unlike that of most of the French generals) disinterested administration no less than by his brilliant valour, he in two years brought into com- plete submission. He annihilated the army of Blake at Maria on the i4th of June 1809, and on the 22nd of April 1810 defeated O'Donnell at Lerida. After being made marshal of France (July 8, 1811) he in 1812 achieved the conquest of Valencia, for which he was rewarded with the title of due d'Albufera da Valencia (1812). When the tide set against the French Suchet defended his conquests step by step till compelled to retire into France, after which he took part in Soult's defensive campaign. By Louis XVIII. he was on the 4th of June made a peer of France, but, having during the Hundred Days commanded one of Napoleon's armies on the Alpine frontier, he was deprived of his peerage on the 24th of July 1815. He died near Marseilles on the 3rd of January 1826. Suchet wrote Mtmoires dealing with the Peninsular War, which were left by the marshal in an
unfinished condition, and the two volumes and atlas appeared in 1820-1834 under the editorship of his former chief staff officer, Baron St Cyr-Nogues.
See C. H. Barault-Roullon, Le Marechal Suchet (Paris, 1854); Choumara, Considerations militaires sur les mbmoires du Marshal Suchet (Paris, 1840), a controversial work on the last events of the Peninsular War, inspired, it is supposed, by Soult; and Lieutenant - General Lamarque's obituary notice in the Spectateur militaire (1826). See also bibliography in article PENINSULAR WAR.
SU-CHOW. There are in China three cities of this name which deserve mention.
1. Su-chow-Fu, in the province of Kiang-su, formerly one of the largest cities in the world, and in 1907 credited still with a population of 500,000, on the Grand Canal, 55 m. W.N.W. of Shanghai, with which it is connected by railway. The site is practically a cluster of islands to the east of Lake Tai-hu. The walls are about 10 m. in circumference and there are four large suburbs. Its silk manufactures are represented by a greater variety of goods than are produced anywhere else in the empire; and the publication of cheap editions of the Chinese classics is carried to great perfection. There is a Chinese proverb to the effect that to be perfectly happy a man ought to be born in Su-chow, live in Canton and die in Lien-chow. The nine- storeyed pagoda of the northern temple is one of the finest in the country. In 1860 Su-chow was captured by the T'aip'ings, and when in 1863 it was recovered by General Gordon the city was almost a heap of ruins. It has since largely recovered its prosperity, and besides 7000 silk looms has cotton mills and an important trade in rice. Of the original splendour of the place some idea may be gathered from the beautiful plan on a slab of marble preserved since 1247 in the temple of Confucius and reproduced in Yule's Marco Polo, vol. i. Su-chow was founded in 484 by Ho-lu-Wang, whose grave is covered by the artificial " Hill of the Tiger " in the vicinity of the town. The literary and poetic designation of Su-chow is Ku-su, from the great tower of Ku-su-tai, built by Ho-lu-Wang. Su-chow was opened to foreign trade by the Japanese treaty of 1895. A Chinese and European school was opened in 1900.
2. Su-chow, formerly Tsiu-tsuan-tsiun, a free city in the province of Kan-suh, in 39° 48' N., just within the extreme north-west angle of the Great Wall, near the gate of jade. It is the great centre of the rhubarb trade. Completely destroyed in the great Mahommedan or Dungan insurrection (1865-72), it was recovered by the Chinese in 1873 and has been rebuilt.
3. Su-chow, a commercial town situated in the province of Sze-ch'uen at the junction of the Min River with the Yang-tse- Kiang, in 28° 46' 50" N. Population (1007) about 50,000.
SUCKLING, SIR JOHN (1600-1642), English poet, was born at Whitton, in the parish of Twickenham, Middlesex, and bap- tized there on the icth of February 1609. His father, Sir John Suckling (1560-1627), had been knighted by James I. and was successively master of requests, comptroller of the household and secretary of state. He sat in the first and second parlia- ments of Charles I.'s reign, and was made a privy councillor. During his career he amassed a considerable fortune, of which the poet became master at the age of eighteen. He was sent to Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1623, and was entered at Gray's Inn in 1627. He was intimate with Thomas Carew, Richard Lovelace, Thomas Nabbes and especially with John Hales and Sir William Davenant, who furnished John Aubrey with information about his friend. In 1628 he left London to travel in France and Italy, returning, however, before the autumn of 1630, when he was knighted. In 1631 he volunteered for the force raised by the marquess of Hamilton to serve under Gustavus Adolphus in Germany. He was back at Whitehall in May 1632; but during his short service he had been present at the battle of Breitenfeld and in many sieges. He was hand- some, rich and generous; his happy gift in verse was only one of many accomplishments, but it commended him especially to Charles I. and his queen. He says of himself (" A Sessions of the Poets ") that he " prized black eyes or a lucky hit at bowls above all the trophies of wit." He was the best card- player and the best bowler at court. Aubrey says that he
8
SUCRE— SUCZAWA
invented the game of cribbage, and relates that his sisters came weeping to the bowling green at Piccadilly to dissuade him from play, fearing that he would lose their portions. In 1634 great scandal was caused in his old circle by a beating which he received at the hands of Sir John Digby, a rival suitor for the hand of the daughter of Sir John Willoughby; and it has been suggested that this incident, which is narrated at length in a letter (Nov. 10, 1634) from George Garrard l to Strafford, had something to do with his beginning to seek more serious society. In 1635 ne retired to his country estates in obedience to the proclamation of the aoth of June 1632 enforced by the Star Chamber * against absentee landlordism, and employed his leisure in literary pursuits. In 1637 " A Sessions of the Poets " was circulated in MS., and about the same time he wrote a tract on Socinianism entitled An Account of Religion by Reason (pr. 1646).
As a dramatist Suckling is noteworthy as having applied to regular drama the accessories already used in the production of masques. His Aglaura (pr. 1638) was produced at his own expense with elaborate scenery. Even the lace on the actors' coats was of real gold and silver. The play, in spite of its felicity of diction, lacks dramatic interest, and the criticism of Richard Flecknoe (Short Discourse of the English Stage),3 that it seemed " full of flowers, but rather stuck in than growing there," is not altogether unjustified. The Goblins (1638, pr. 1646) has some reminiscences of The Tempest; Brennoralt, or the Discontented Colonel (1639, pr. 1646) is a satire on the Scots, who are the Lithuanian rebels of the play; a fourth play, The Sad One, was left unfinished owing to the outbreak of the Civil War. Suckling raised a troop of a hundred horse, at a cost of £12,000, and accompanied Charles on the Scottish expedi- tion of 1639. He shared in the earl of Holland's retreat before Duns, and was ridiculed in an amusing ballad (pr. 1656), in Musarum deliciae, " on Sir John Suckling's most war- like preparations for the Scottish war."4 He was elected as member for Bramber for the opening session (1640) of the Long Parliament; and in that winter he drew up a letter addressed to Henry Jermyn, afterwards earl of St Albans, advising the king to disconcert the opposition leaders by making more con- cessions than they asked for. In May of the following year he was implicated in an attempt to rescue Strafford from the Tower and to bring in French troops to the king's aid. The plot was exposed by the evidence of Colonel George Goring, and Suckling fled beyond the seas. The circumstances of his short exile are obscure. He was certainly in Paris in the summer of 1641. One pamphlet related a story of his elopement with a lady to Spain, where he fell into the hands of the Inquisition. The manner of his death is uncertain, but Aubrey's statement that he put an end to his life by poison in May or June 1642 in fear of poverty is generally accepted.
Suckling's reputation as a poet depends on his minor pieces. They have wit and fancy, and at times exquisite felicity of expression. " Easy, natural Suckling," Millamant's comment in Congreve's Way of the World (Act iv., sc. i.) is a just tribute to their spontaneous quality. Among the best known of them are the " Ballade upon a Wedding," on the occasion of the marriage of Roger Boyle, afterwards earl of Orrery, and Lady Margaret Howard, "I prithee, send me back my heart," "Out upon it, I have loved three whole days together," and " Why so pale and wan, fond lover?" from Aglaura. " A Sessions of the Poets," describing a meeting of the con- temporary versifiers under the presidency of Apollo to decide who should wear the laurel wreath, is the prototype of many later satires.
A collection of Suckling's poems was first published in 1646 as Fragmenta aurea, the so-called Selections (1836) published by the
1 Strafford's Letters and Despatches (1739), i. 336.
1 For an account of the proceedings see Historical Collections, ed. by Rushworth (1680), 2nd pt., pp. 288-293.
* Reprinted in Eng. Drama and Stage, ed. W. C. Hazlitt, Rox- burghe Library (1869), p. 277.
4 Attributed by Aubrey to Sir John Mennis (1599-1671). See also a song printed in the tract, Fox borealis (Harl. Misc. iii. 235).
Rev. Alfred Inigo Suckling, author of the History and Antiquities of Suffolk (1846-1848) with Memoirs based on original authorities and a portrait after Van Dyck, is really a complete edition of his works, of which W. C. Hazlitt's edition (1874; revised ed., 1892) is little more than a reprint with some additions. The Poems and Songs of Sir John Suckling, edited by John Gray and decorated with woodcut border and initials by Charles Ricketts, was artistically printed at the Ballantyne Press in 1896. In 1910 Suckling's works in prose and verse were edited by A. Hamilton Thompson. For anecdotes of Suckling's life see John Aubrey's Brief Lives (Clarendon Press ed., ii. 242).
SUCRE, or CHUQUISACA, a city of Bolivia, capital of the department of Chuquisaca and nominal capital of the republic, 46 m. N.E. of Potosi in 19° 2' 45* S., 65° 17' W. Pop. (1900), 20,967; (1906, estimate), 23,416, of whom many are Indians and cholos. The city is in an elevated valley opening southward on the narrow ravine through which flows the Cachimayo, the principal northern tributary of the Pilcomayo. Its elevation, 8839 ft., gives it an exceptionally agreeable climate. There are fertile valleys in the vicinity which provide the city's markets with fruit and vegetables, while the vineyards of Camargo (formerly known as Cinti), in the southern part of the depart- ment, supply wine and spirits of excellent quality. The city is laid out regularly, with broad streets, a large central plaza and a public garden, or promenade, called the prado. Among its buildings are the cathedral, dating from 1553 and once noted for its wealth; the president's palace and halls of congress, which are no longer occupied as such by the national govern- ment; the cabildo, or town-hall; a mint dating from 1572; the courts of justice, and the university of San Xavier, founded in 1624, with faculties of law, medicine and theology. There is a pretty chapel called the " Rotunda," erected in 1852 at the lower end of the prado by President Belzu, on the spot where an attempt had been made to assassinate him. Sucre is the seat of the archbishop of La Plata and Charcas, the primate of Bolivia. It is not a commercial town, .and its only note- worthy manufacture is the " clay dumplings " which are eaten with potatoes by the inhabitants of the Bolivian uplands. Although the capital of Bolivia, Sucre is one of its most isolated towns because of the difficult character of the roads leading to it. It is reached from the Pacific by way of Challapata, a station on the Antofagasta & Oruro railway.
The Spanish town, according to Velasco, was founded in 1538 by Captain Pedro Angules on the site of an Indian village called Chuquisaca, or Chuquichaca (golden bridge), and was called Charcas and Ciudad de la Plata by the Spaniards, though the natives clung to the original Indian name. It became the capital of the province of Charcas, of the comarca of Chuquisaca, and of the bishopric of La Plata and Charcas, and in time it became the favourite residence and health resort of the rich mine-owners of Potosi. The bishopric dates from 1552 and the archbishopric from 1609. In the latter year was created the Real Audiencia de la Plata y Charcas, a royal court of justice having jurisdiction over Upper Peru and the La Plata provinces of that time. Sucre was the first city of Spanish South America to revolt against Spanish rule — on the 2Sth of May 1809. In 1840 the name Sucre was adopted in honour of the patriot commander who won the last decisive "battle of the war, and then became the first president of Bolivia. The city has suffered much from partisan strife, and the removal of the government to La Paz greatly diminished its importance.
SUCZAWA (Rumanian, Suceava), a town in Bukovina, Austria, 50 m. S. of Czernowitz by rail. Pop. (1900), 10,955. It is situated on the river Suczawa, which forms there the boundary between Bukovina and Rumania. One of its two churches, dating from the I4th century, contains the grave of the patron saint of Bukovina. The principal industry is the tanning and leather trade. Not far from Suczawa lies the monastery of Dragomirna, in Byzantine style, built at the beginning of the i/th century. Suczawa is a very old town and was until 1565 the capital of the principality of Moldavia. It was many times besieged by Poles, Hungarians, Tatars and Turks. In 1675 it was besieged by Sobiaski, and in 1679 it was plundered by the Turks.
SUDAN
SUDAN (Arabic Bilad-es-Sudan, country of the blacks), that region of Africa which stretches, south of the Sahara and Egypt, from Cape Verde on the Atlantic to Massawa on the Red Sea. It is bounded S. (i) by the maritime countries of the west coast of Africa, (2) by the basin of the Congo, and (3) by the equatorial lakes, and E. by the Abyssinian and Galla high- lands. The name is often used in Great Britain in a restricted sense to designate only the eastern part of this vast territory, but it is properly applied to the whole area indicated, which corresponds roughly to that portion of negro Africa north of the equator under Mahommedan influence. The terms Nigritia and Negroland, at one time current, referred to the same region.
^'M^^&j^WGL
Anglo -Egyptian
SUDAN
Railmay *...***•**• Caravan routes Capitals of Provinces
The Sudan has an ethnological rather than a physical unity, and politically it is divided into a large number of states, all now under the control of European powers. These countries being separately described, brief notice only is required of the Sudan as a whole.
Within the limits assigned it has a length of about 4000 m., extending southwards at some points 1000 m., with a total area of over 2,000,000 sq. m., and a population, approximately, of 40,000,000. Between the arid and sandy northern wastes and the well-watered and arable Sudanese lands there is a transitional zone of level grassy steppes (partly covered with mimosas and acacias) with a mean breadth of about 60 m. The zone lies between 17° and 18° N., but towards the centre reaches as far south as 15° N. Excluding this transitional zone, the Sudan may be described as a moderately elevated region, with extensive open or rolling plains, level plateaus, and abutting at its eastern and western ends on mountainous country. Crystalline rocks, granites, gneisses and schists, of the Central
African type, occupy the greater part of the country. Towards the south-east, slates, quartzites and iron-bearing schists ocCur, but their age is not known. The Congo sandstones do not appear to extend as far north. The Nubian sandstone borders the Libyan desert on the south and south-west, but it is doubtful if this sandstone is of Cretaceous or earlier date.
The Sudan contains the basin of the Senegal and parts of three other hydrographic systems, namely: the Niger, draining southwards to the Atlantic; the central depression of Lake Chad; and the Nile, flowing northwards to the Mediterranean. Lying within the tropics and with an average elevation of not more than 1500 to 2000 ft. above the sea, the climate of the Sudan is hot and in the river valleys very un- healthy. Few parts are suitable for the residence of Europeans. Cut off from North Africa by the Saharan desert, the inhabitants, who belong in the main to the negro family proper, are thought to have received their earliest civilization from the East. Arab influence and the Moslem religion began to be felt in the western Sudan as early as the gth century and had taken deep root by the end of the nth. The existence of native Chris- tian states in Nubia hindered for some ' centuries the spread of Islam in the eastern Sudan, and throughout the country some tribes have remained pagan. It was not until the last quarter of the ipth century that the European nations became the ruling force.
The terms western, central and eastern Sudan are indicative of geographical position merely. The various states are politically divisible into four groups: (i) those west of the Niger; (2) those between the Niger and Lake Chad; (3) those between Lake Chad and the basin of the Nile; (4) those in the upper Nile valley.
The first group includes the native states of Bondu, Futa Jallon, Masina, Mossi and all the tribes within the great bend of the Niger. In the last quarter of the i Qth century they fell under the control of France, the region being styled officially the French Sudan. In 1900 this title was abandoned. The greater part of what was the French Sudan is now known as [the Upper Senegal and Niger Colony (see SENEGAL, FRENCH WEST AFRICA, &c.).
The second group of Sudanese states EI""yW"*"Ki is almost entirely within the British protectorate of Northern Nigeria. It includes the sultanate of Sokoto and its dependent emirates of Kano, Bida, Zaria, &c., and the ancient sultanate of Bornu, which, with Adamawa, is partly within the German colony of Cameroon (see NIGERIA and CAMEROON).
The third or central group of Sudanese states is formed of the sultanates of Bagirmi (<?.».) with Kanem and Wadai (q.v.). Wadai was the last state of the Sudan to come under European influence, its conquest being effected in 1909. This third group is included in French Congo (q.v.).
The fourth group consists of the states conquered during the i gth century by the Egyptians and now under the joint control of Great Britain and Egypt. These countries are known collectively as the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan (see below).
For the regions west of Lake Chad the standard historical work is the Travels of Dr Heinrich Barth (5 vols., London, 1857-1858). Consult also P. C. Meyer, Erforschungsgeschichte und Staatenbildungen des Westsudan (Gotha, 1897), an admirable summary with biblio- graphy and maps; Karl Kumm, The Sudan (London, 1907); Lady
10
SUDAN
Lugard, A Tropical Dependency (London, 1905); and the biblio- graphies given under the various countries named. For sources and history see TIMBUKTU. For the central Sudan the most im- portant work is that of Gustav Nachtigal, Sahara und Sudan (3 vols., Berlin 1879-1889). See also Boyd Alexander, From the Niger to the Nile (2 vols., London, 1907) ; Karl Kumm, From Haussaland to Egypt (London, 1910). For the eastern Sudan see the bibliographies under the following section. A good general work is P. Paulitschke's Die Suddnlander (Freiburg, 1885).
THE ANGLO-EGYPTIAN SUDAN
The region which before the revolt of the Arabized tribes under the Mahdi Mahommed Ahmed in 1881-84 was known
as the Egyptian Sudan has, since its reconquest by a* the Anglo-Egyptian expeditions of 1896-98, been
under the joint sovereignty of Great Britain and Egypt. The limits of this condominium differ slightly from those of the Egyptian Sudan of the pre-Mahdi period. It is bounded N. by Egypt (the 22nd parallel of N. lat. being the dividing line) , E. by the Red Sea , Eritrea and Abyssinia, S. by the Uganda Protectorate and Belgian Congo, W. by French Congo. North of Darfur is the Libyan Desert, in which the western and northern frontiers meet. Here the boundary is undefined.1
As thus constituted the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan forms a com- pact territory which, being joined southwards by the Uganda Protectorate, brings the whole of the Nile valley from the equatorial lakes to the Mediterranean under the control of Great Britain. The Anglo-Egyptian Sudan extends north to south about 1200 m. in a direct line, and west to east about 1000 m. also in a direct line. It covers 950,000 sq. m., being about one- fourth the area of Europe. In what follows the term Sudan is used to indicate the Anglo-Egyptian condominium only.
Physical Features. — The Sudan presents'many diversified features. It may be divided broadly into two zones. The northern portion, from about 16° N., is practically the south-eastern continuation of the Saharan desert; the southern region is fertile, abundantly watered, and in places densely forested. West oi the Nile there is a distinctly marked intermediate zone of steppes. In the southern district, between 5° and 10° N., huge swamps extend on either side of the Nile and along the Bahr-el-Ghazal.
From south to north the Sudan is traversed by the Nile (j.t>.), and all the great tributaries of that river are either partly or entirely within its borders. The most elevated district is a range of mountains running parallel to the Red Sea. These mountains, which to the south join the Abyssinian highlands, present their steepest face eastward, attaining heights within the Sudan of 4000 to over 7000 ft. Jebel Erba, 7480 ft., and Jebel Soturba, 6889 ft. (both between 21° and 22° N.), the highest peaks, face the Red Sea about 20 m. inland. Westward the mountains 'slope gradually to the Nile valley, which occupies the greater part of the country and has a general level of from 600 to 1600 ft. In places, as between Suakin and Berber and above Roseires on the Blue Nile, the mountains approach close to the river. Beyond the Nile westward extend vast plains, which in Kordofan and Dar Nuba (between 10° and 15° N.) are broken by hills reaching 2000 ft. Farther west, in Darfur, the country is more elevated, the Jebel Marra range being from 5000 to 6000 ft. high. In the south-west, beyond the valley of the Bahr-el-Ghazal, the country gradually rises to a ridge of hills, perhaps 2000 ft. high, which running south-east and north-west form the water-parting between the Nile and the Congo.
Apart from the Nile system, fully described elsewhere, the Sudan has two other rivers, the Gash and the Baraka. These are inter- mittent streams rising in the eastern chain of mountains in Eritrea and flowing in a general northerly direction. The Gash enters the Sudan near Kassala and north of that town turns west towards the Atbara, but its waters are dissipated before that river is reached. The Gash nevertheless fertilizes a considerable tract of country. The Khor Baraka lies east of the Gash. It flows towards the Red Sea in the neighbourhood of Trinkitat (some 50 m. south of Suakin), but about 30 m. from the coast forms an inland delta. Except in seasons of great rain its waters do not reach the sea.
The Coast Region. — The coast extends along the Red Sea north to south from 22° N. to 18° N., a distance following the indentations of the shore of over 400 m. These indentations are numerous but not deep, the general trend of the coast being S.S.E. The most prominent headland is Ras Rawaya (21° N.) which forms the northern shore ot Dokhana Bay. There are few good harbours, Port
1 It was supposed to be indicated by the line which, according to the Turkish firman of 1841, describes a semicircle from the Siwa Oasis to Wadai, approaching the Nile between the Second and Third Cataracts. This line is disregarded by the Sudan government.
Sudan and Suakin being the chief ports. South of Suakin is the shallow bay of Trinkitat. A large number of small islands lie off the coast. A belt of sandy land covered with low scrub stretches inland ten to twenty miles, and is traversed by khors (generally dry) with ill-defined shifting channels. Beyond this plain rise the mountain ranges already mentioned. Their seaward slopes often bear a considerable amount of vegetation.
The Desert Zone. — The greater part of the region between the coast and the Nile is known as the Nubian Desert. It is a rugged, rocky, barren waste, scored with khors or wadis, along whose beds there is scanty vegetation. The desert character of the country increases as the river is neared, but along either bank of the Nile is a narrow strip of cultivable land. West of the Nile there are a few oases — those of Selima, Zaghawa and El Kab — but this district, part of the Libyan Desert, is even more desolate than the Nubian Desert.
The Intermediate Zone and the Fertile Districts. — East of the Nile the region of absolute desert ceases about the point of the Atbara confluence. The country enclosed by the Nile, the Atbara and the Blue Nile, the so-called Island of Meroe, consists of very fertile soil, and along the eastern frontier, by the upper courses of the rivers named, is a district of rich land alternating with prairies and open forests. The fork between the White and Blue Niles, the Gezira, is also fertile land. South of the Gezira is Sennar, a well- watered country of arable and grazing land.
West of the Nile the desert zone extends farther south than on the east, and Kordofan, which comes between the desert and the plains of the Bahr-el-Ghazal, is largely barren and steppe land. South of 10° N. there is everywhere abundance of water. Darfur is mainly open, steppe-like country with extensive tracts of cultiv- able land and a central mountain massif, the Jebel Marra (see SENNAR KORDOFAN, DARFUR).
Climate. — The country lies wholly within the tropics, and as the greater part of it is far removed from the ocean and less than 1500 ft. above the sea it is extremely hot. The heat is greatest in the central regions, least in the desert zone, where the difference between summer and winter is marked. Even in winter, however, the day temperatures are high. Of this region the Arabs say " the soil is like fire and the wind like a flame." Nevertheless, the drynessof the air renders the climate healthy. The steppe countries, Kordofan and Darfur, are also healthy except after the autumn rains. At Khartum, centrally situated, the minimum temperature is about 40° F., the maximum 113°, the mean annual temperature being 80°. January is the coldest and June the hottest month. Violent sand- storms are frequent from June to August. Four rain zones may be distinguished. The northern (desert) region is one of little or no rain. There are perhaps a few rainy days in winter and an occasional storm in the summer. In the central belt, where " the rainy season " is from mid-June to September, there are some 10 in. of rain during the year. The number of days on which rain falls rarely exceeds, however, fifteen. The rainfall increases to about 20 m. per annum in the eastern and south-eastern regions. In the swamp district and throughout the Bahr-el-Ghazal heavy rains (40 in. or more a year) are experienced. The season of heaviest rain is from April to September. In the maritime district there are occasional heavy rains between August and January. In the sudd region thunderstorms are frequent. Here the temperature averages about 85° F., the air is always damp and fever is endemic.
Flora. — In the deserts north of Khartum vegetation is almost confined to stunted mimosa and, in the less arid districts, scanty herbage. Between the desert and the cultivated Nile lands is an open growth of samr, hashab (Acacia verek) and other acacia trees. Between Khartum and 12° N. forest belts line the banks of the rivers and khors, in which the most noteworthy tree is the sant or sunt (Acacia arabica). Farther from the rivers are open woods of heglig (Balanites aegyptiaca), hashab, &c., and dense thickets of laot (Acacia nubica) and kittr (Acacia mellifera). These open woods coyer a considerable part of Kordofan, the hashab and talh trees being the chief producers of gum arabic. South of 12° N. the forest , lands of the White Nile as far south as the sudd region are of similar character to that described. On the Blue Nile the forest trees alter, the most abundant being the babanus (Sudan ebony) and the silag (Anogeissus leiocarpus), while gigantic baobabs, called tebeldi in the Sudan, and tarfa (Sterculia cinerea) are numerous. In southern Kordofan and in the higher parts of the Bahr-el-Ghazal the silag and ebony are also common, as well as African mahogany (homraya, Khaya senegalensis) and other timber trees. In the Ghazal province also are many rubber-producing lianas, among them the Landolphia owariensis. There are also forest regions in the Bahr-el-Jebel, in the Mongalla mudiria and along the Abyssinian- Eritrean frontier. East of the Bahr-el-Jebel and north of the Bahr-el-Ghazal are vast prairies covered with tall coarse grass. Cotton is indigenous in the valley of the Blue Nile, and in some districts bamboos are plentiful. The castor-oil plant grows in almost every province. (See also § Agriculture, and, for the vegetation of the swamp region, NILE.)
Fauna. — Wild animals and birds are numerous. Elephants are abundant in the Bahr-el-Ghazal and Bahr-el-Jebel forests, and are found in fewer numbers in the upper valley of the Blue Nile.
SUDAN
ii
The hippopotamus and crocodile abound in the swamp regions, which also shelter many kinds of water-fowl. The lion, leopard, giraffe and various kinds of antelope are found in the prairies and in the open woods. In the forests are numerous bright-plumaged birds and many species of monkeys, mostly ground monkeys — the trees being too prickly for climbing. Snakes are also plentiful, many poisonous kinds being found. In the steppe regions of Kordo- fan, Darfur, &c., and in the Nubian Desert ostriches are fairly plentiful. Insect life is very abundant, especially south of 12° N., the northern limit of the tsetse fly. The chief pests are mosqui- toes, termites and the serut, a brown fly about the size of a wasp, with a sharp stab, which chiefly attacks cattle. Locusts are less common, but, especially in the eastern districts, occasionally cause great destruction. For domestic animals see § Agriculture.
Inhabitants. — The population, always sparse in the desert and steppe regions, was never dense even in the more fertile southern districts. During the Mahdia the country suffered severely from war and disease. Excluding Darfur the popula- tion before the Mahdist rule was estimated at 8,500,000. In 1905 an estimate made by the Sudan government put the population at 1,853,000 only, including 11,000 foreigners, of whom 2800 were Europeans. Since that year there has been a considerable natural increase and in 1910 the population was officially estimated at 2,400,000. There has also been a slight immigration of Abyssinians, Egyptians, Syrians and Europeans — the last named chiefly Greeks.
The term " Bilad-es-Sudan " (" country of the blacks ") is not altogether applicable to the Anglo-Egyptian condominium, the northern portion being occupied by Hamitic and Semitic tribes, chiefly nomads, and classed as Arabs. In the Nile valley north of Khartum the inhabitants are of very mixed origin. This applies particularly to the so-called Nubians who inhabit the Dongola mudiria (see NUBIA). Elsewhere the inhabitants north of 12° N. are of mixed Arab descent. In the Nubian Desert the chief tribes are the Ababda and Bisharin, the last named grazing their camels in the mountainous districts towards the Red Sea. In the region south of Berber and Suakin are the Hadendoa. The Jaalin, Hassania and Shukria inhabit the country between the Atbara and Blue Nile; the Hassania and Hassanat are found chiefly in the Gezira. The Kabbabish occupy the desert country north of Kordofan, which is the home of the Baggara tribes. In Darfur the inhabitants are of mixed Arab and negro blood.
Of negro Nilotic tribes there are three or four main divisions. The Shilluks occupy the country along the west side of the Nile northward from about Lake No. The country east of the Nile is divided between the Bari, Nuer and Dinka tribes. The Dinkas are also widely spread over the Bahr-el-Ghazal province. South of Kordofan and west of the Shilluk territory are the Nubas, apparently the original stock of the Nubians. In the south-west of the Bahr-el-Ghazal are the Bongos and other tribes, and along the Nile-Congo water-parting are the A-Zande or Niam-Niam, a comparatively light-coloured race. (All the tribes mentioned are separately noticed.)
Social Conditions. — In contrast with the Egyptians, a most industrious race, the Sudanese tribes, both Arab and negro, are as a general rule indolent. Where wants are few and simple, where houses need not be built nor clothes worn to keep out the cold, there is little stimulus to exertion. Many Arabs " clothed in rags, with only a mat for a house, prefer to lead the life of the free-born sons of the desert, no matter how large their herds or how numerous their followings" (Egypt, No. i [1904], p. 147). Following the establishment of British control slave-raiding and the slave trade were stopped, but domestic slavery continues. A genuine desire for education is manifest among the Arabic- speaking peoples and slow but distinct moral improvement is visible among them. Among the riverain " Arabs " some were found to supply labour for public works, and with the money thus obtained cattle were bought and farms started. The Dongolese are the keenest traders in the country. The Arab tribes are all Mahommedans, credulous and singularly liable to fits of religious excitement. Most of the negro tribes are pagan, but some of them who live in the northern regions have embraced Islam.
Divisions and Chief Towns. — Darfur is under native rule. The rest of the Sudan is divided into mudirias (provinces) and these are subdivided into mamuria. The mudirias are Haifa, Red Sea, Dongola and Berber in the north (these include practically all the region known as Nubia) ; Khartum, Blue Nile and White Nile in the centre; Kassala and Sennar in the east; Kordofan in the west; and Bahr- el-Ghazal, Upper Nile (formerly Fashoda) and Mongalla in the south. The mudirias vary considerably in size.
The capital, Khartum (<?.».), pop. with suburbs about 70,000, is built in the fork formed by the junction of the White and Bjue Niles. Opposite Khartum, on the west bank of the White Nile, is Omdurman (q.v.), pop. about 43,000, the capital of the Sudan during the Mahdia. On the Nile north of Khartum at the towns of Berber, Abu Hamed, Merawi (Merowe), Dongola and Wadi Haifa. On the Red Sea are Port Sudan and Suakin. Kassala is on the river Gash east of the Atbara and near the Eritrean frontier. (These towns are separately noticed.) On the Blue Nile are Kamlin, Sennar, Wad Medani (Q.V.), pop. about 20,000, a thriving business centre and capital of the Blue Nile mudiria, and Roseires, which marks the limit of navigability by steamers of the river. Gallabat is a town in the Kassala mudiria close to the Abyssinian frontier, and Gedaref lies between the Blue Nile and Atbara a little north of 14° N. El Obeid, the chief town of Kordofan, is 230 m. south- west by south of Khartum. Duiem, capital of the White Nile mudiria, is the river port for Kordofan. El Fasher, the capital of Darfur, is 500 m. W.S.W. of Khartum. AH the towns named, except Roseires, are situated north of 13° N. In the south of the Sudan there are no towns properly so called. The native villages are composed of straw or palm huts; the places occupied by Europeans or Egyptians are merely " posts " where the administrative business of the district is carried on. Fashoda (g.f.), renamed Kodok, is the headquarters of the Upper Nile mudiria.
Communications. — North of Khartum the chief means of com- munication is by railway; south of that city by steamer. There are two trunk railways, one connecting the Sudan with Egypt, the other affording access to the Red Sea. The first line runs from the Nile at Wadi Haifa across the desert in a direct line to Abu Hamed, and from that point follows more or less closely the right (east) bank of the Nile to Khartum. At Khartum the Blue Nile is bridged and the railway is continued south through the Gezira to Sennar. Thence it turns west, crosses the White Nile near Abba Island, and is continued to El Obeid. The length of the line from Haifa to Khartum is 575 m. ; from Khartum to Obeid 350 m. The railway from the Nile to the Red Sea starts from the Haifa-Khartum line at Atbara Junction, a mile north of the Atbara confluence. It runs somewhat south of the Berber-Suakin caravan route. At Sallom, 278 m. from Atbara Junction, the line divides, one branch going north to Port Sudan, the other south to Suakin. The total distance to Port Sudan from Khartum is 493 m., the line to Suakin being 4 m. longer. Besides these main lines a railway, 138 m. long, runs from Abu Hamed on the right bank of the Nile to Kareima (opposite Merawi) in the Dongola mudiria below the Fourth Cataract. (The railway which started from Haifa and followed the right bank of the Nile to Kerma, 201 m. from Haifa, was abandoned in 1903.) The railways are owned and worked by the state.
In connexion with the Khartum-Haifa railway steamers ply on the Nile between Haifa and Shellal (Assuan) where the railway from Alexandria ends. The distance by rail and steamer between Khartum and Alexandria is about 1490 m. Steamers run on the Nile between Kerma and Kareima, and above Khartum the govern- ment maintains a regular service of steamers as far south as Gondo- koro in the Uganda Protectorate. During flood season there is also a steamship service on the Blue Nile. Powerful dredgers and sudd-cutting machines are used to keep open communications in the upper Nile and Bahr-el-Ghazal.
The ancient caravan routes Korosko-Abu Hamed and Berber- Suakin have been superseded by the railways, but elsewhere wells and rest-houses are maintained along the main routes between the towns and the Nile. On some of these roads a motor car service is maintained.
From Port Sudan and Suakin there is a regular steamship service to Europe via the Suez Canal . There are also services to Alexandria, the Red Sea ports of Arabia, Aden and India.
There is an extensive telegraphic system. Khartum is connected by land lines with Egypt and Uganda, thus affording direct tele- graphic connexion between Alexandria and Mombasa (2500 m.). From Khartum other lines go to Kassala and the Red Sea ports. In some places the telegraph wires are placed 16 ft. 6 in. above the ground to protect them from damage by giraffes.
Agriculture and other Industries. — North of Khartum agricul- tural land is confined to a narrow strip on either side of the Nile and to the few oases in the Libyan Desert. In the Gezira and in the plains of Gedaref between the Blue Nile and the Atbara there are wide areas of arable land, as also in the neighbourhood of Kassala along the banks of the Gash. In Kordofan and Darfur cultivation is confined to the khors or valleys. The chief grain crop is durra, the staple food of the Sudanese. Two crops are obtained yearly in several districts. On lands near the rivers the durra is sown after the flood has gone down and also at the beginning of the rainy season. Considerable quantities of wheat and barley are also
12
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grown. Other foodstuffs raised are lentils, beans, onions and melons. The date-palm is cultivated along the Nile valley below Khartum, especiajly on the west bank in the Dongola mudiria and in the neighbouring oases. Dates are also a staple product in Darfur and Kordofan. Ground-nuts and sesame are grown in large quantities for the oil they yield, and cotton of quality equal to that grown in the Delta is produced. The Sudan was indeed the original home of Egyptian cotton.
For watering the land by the river banks sakias (water-wheels) are used, oxen being employed to turn them There are also a few irrigation canals. In 1910, apart from the date plantations, about 1,500,000 acres were under cultivation. In 1910 a system of basin irrigation was begun in Dongola mudiria.
Gum and ruboer are the chief forest products. The gum is obtained from eastern Kordofan and in the forests in the upper valley of the Blue Nile, the best gum coming from Kordofan. It is of two kinds, hashab (white) and talk (red), the white being the most valuable. Rubber is obtained from the Bahr-el-Ghazal — where there are Para and Ceara rubber plantations — and in the Sobat district. The wood of the sunt tree is used largely for boat- building and for fuel, and the mahogany tree yields excellent timber. Fibre is made from several trees and plants. Elephants are hunted for the sake of their ivory. The wealth of the Arab tribes consists largely in their herds of camels, horses and cattle. They also keep ostrich farms, the feathers being of good quality. The Dongola breed of horses is noted for its strength and hardness. The camels are bred in the desert north of Berber, between the Nile and Red Sea, in southern Dongola, in the Hadendoa country and in northern Kordofan. The Sudanese camel is lighter, faster and better bred than the camel of Egypt. The camel, horse and ostrich are not found south of Kordofan and Sennar. The negro tribes living south of those countries possess large herds of cattle, sheep and goats. The cattle are generally small and the sheep yield little wool. The Arabs use the cattle as draught-animals as well as for their milk and flesh ; the negro tribes as a rule do not eat their oxen. Fowls are plentiful, but of poor quality. Donkeys are much used in the central regions; they make excellent transport animals.
Mineral Wealth. — In ancient times Nubia, i.e. the region between the Red Sea and the Nile south of Egypt and north of the Suakin- Berber line, was worked for gold. Ruins of an extensive gold- mine exist near Jebel Erba at a short distance from the sea. In 1905 gold mining recommenced in Nubia, in the district of Um Nabardi, which is in the desert, about midway between Wadi Haifa and Abu Hamed. A light railway, 30 m. long, opened in June 1905, connects Um Nabardi with the government railway system. The producing stage was reached in 1908, and between September 1908 and August 1909 the mines yielded 4500 oz. of gold. Small quantities of gold-dust are obtained from Kordofan, and gold is found in the Beni-Shangul country south-west of Sennar, but this region is within the Abyssinian frontier (agreement of the I5th of May 1902). There is lignite in the Dongola mudiria and iron ore is found in Darfur, southern Kordofan and in the Bahr-el-Ghazal. In the last-named mudiria iron is worked by the natives. The district of Hofrat-el-Nahas (the copper mine) is rich in copper, the mines having been worked intermittently from remote times.
Trade. — The chief products of the Sudan for export are gum, ivory, ostrich feathers, dates and rubber. Cotton, cotton-seed and grain (durra, wheat, barley) sesame, livestock, hides and skins, beeswax, mother-of-pearl, senna and gold are also exported. Before the opening (1906) of the railway to the Red Sea the trade was chiefly with Egypt via the Nile, and the great cost of carriage hindered its development. Since the completion of the railway named goods can be put on the world's markets at a much cheaper rate. Besides the Egyptian and Red Sea routes there is considerable trade between the eastern mudirias and Abyssinia and Eritrea, and also some trade south and west with Uganda and the Congo countries. The Red Sea ports trade largely with Arabia and engage in pearl fishery. The principal imports are cotton goods, food-stuffs (flour, rice, sugar, provisions), timber, tobacco, spirits (in large quantities), iron and machinery, candles, cement and perfumery. The value of the trade, which during the Mahdist rule (1884-1898) was a few thousands only, had increased in 1905 to over £1,500,000. In 1908 the exports of Sudan produce were valued at ££515,000'; the total imports at ££1,892,000.
Government. — The administration is based on the provisions of a convention signed on the igth of January 1899 between the British and Egyptian governments. The authority of the sovereign powers is represented by a governor-general appointed by Egypt on the recommendation of Great Britain. In 1910 a council consisting of four ex officio members and from two to four non-official nominated members was created to advise the governor-general in the exercise of his executive and legislative functions. Subject to the power of veto retained by the governor- general all questions are decided by a majority of the council. L 1 A£E(pound Egyptian) is equal to £i, os. 6d. British currency.
Each of the mudirias into which the country is divided is presided over by a mudir (governor) responsible to the central govern ment at Khartum. The governor-general, the chiefs of the various departments of state and the mudirs are all Europeans, the majority being British military officers The minor officials are nearly all Egyptians or Sudanese. Revenue is derived as to about 60% from the customs and revenue-earning depart- ments (i.e. steamers, railways, posts and telegraphs), and as to the rest from taxes on land, date-trees and animals, from royalties on gum, ivory and ostrich feathers, from licences to sell spirits, carry arms, &c., and from fees paid for the shooting of game. Expenditure is largely on public works, education, justice and the army. Financial affairs are managed from Khartum, but control over expenditure is exercised by the Egyptian financial department. The revenue, which in 1898 was ££35,000, for the first time exceeded a million in 1909, when the amount realized was ££1,040,200. The expenditure in 1909 was ££1,153 ooo. Financially the government had been, up to 1910, largely dependent upon Egypt. In the years 1901- 1909 ££4,378,000 was advanced from Cairo for public works in the Sudan; in the same period a further sum of about ££2,750,000 had been found by Egypt to meet annual deficits in the Sudan budgets (see Egypt, No. i [1910], pp. 5-6).
Justice. — The Sudan judicial codes, based in part on those of India and in part on the principles of English law and of Egyptian commercial law, provide for the recognition of " cus- tomary law " so far as applicable and " not repugnant to good conscience." In each mudiria criminal justice is administered by a court, consisting of the mudir (or a judge) and two magis- trates, which has general competence. The magistrates are members of the administrative staff, who try minor cases without the help of the mudir (or judge). The governor-general possesses revising powers in all cases. Civil cases of importance are heard by a judge (or where no judge is available by the mudir or his representative); minor civil cases are tried by magistrates. From the decision of the judges an appeal lies to the legal secretary of the government, in his capacity of judicial com- missioner. Jurisdiction in all legal matters as regards personal status of Mahommedans is administered by a grand cadi and a staff of subordinate cadis. The police force of each mudiria is independently organized under the control of the mudirs.
Education. — Education is in charge of the department of public instruction. Elementary education, the medium of instruction being Arabic, is given in kuttabs or village schools. There are primary schools in the chief towns where English, Arabic, mathematics, and in some cases land-measuring is taught. There are also government industrial workshops, and a few schools for girls. The Gordon College at Khartum trains teachers and judges in the Mahommedan courts and has annexed to it a secondary school. The college also contains the Wellcome laboratories for scientific research. Among the pagan negro tribes Protestant and Roman Catholic missions are established. These missions carry on educational work, special attention being given to industrial training.
Defence. — The defence of the country is entrusted to the Egyptian army, of which several regiments are stationed in the Sudan. The governor-general is sirdar (Commander-in-chief) of the army. A small force of British troops is also stationed in the Sudan — chiefly at Khartum. They are under the com- mand of the governor-general in virtue of an arrangement made in 1905, having previously been part of the Egyptian command.
For topography, &c.,see The Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, a compendium prepared by officers of the Sudan government and edited by Count Gleichen (2 vols., London, 1905); for administration, finance and trade the annual Reports [by the British agent at Cairo] on Egypt and the Sudan, since 1898; and the special report (Blue Book Egypt, No. 11., 1883) by Colonel D. H. Stewart. Consult also J. Pethenck, Travels in Central Africa (2 vols., London, 1862); W. Junker, Travels l"Af"ca- 1^75-1886 (3 vols., London, 1890-1892); G. Schweinfurth The Heart of Africa (2 vols., London, 1873); J. Baumgarten, Os/- ajnka, der Sudan und das Seengebiet (Gotha, 1890); E. D. Schoenfeld, Erythraa und der agyptische Sudan (Berlin, 1904); C. E. Muriel, Report on the Forests of the Sudan (Cairo, 1901); H. F. Witherby, Bird Hunting on the White Nile (London, 1902). For ethnology.
SUDAN
&c., see A. H.'Keane, Ethnology of the Egyptian Sudan (London, 1884) ; H. Frobenius, DieHeiden-Neger des dgyptischen Sudan (Berlin, 1893). Scientific and medical subjects are dealt with in the Reports of the Wellcome Research Laboratories, Gordon College, Khartum. The Sudan Almanac is a valuable official publication. (F. R. C.)
Archaeology. — Archaeological study in the Sudan was retarded for many years by political conditions. The work which had been begun by Cailliaud, Champollion, Lepsius and others was interrupted by the rise of the Mahdist power; and with the frontiers of Egypt itself menaced by dervishes, the country south of Aswan (Assuan) was necessarily closed to the student of antiquity. Even after the dervishes had been overthrown at the battle of Omdurman (1898) it was some time before archaeologists awoke to a sense of the historical importance of the regions thus made accessible to them. Dr Wallis Budge visited several of the far southern sites and made some tentative excavations, but no extensive explorations were undertaken until an unexpected event produced a sudden outburst of activity. This was the resolution adopted by the Egyptian government to extend the great reservoir at the First Cataract by raising the height of the Aswan dam. As a result of this measure all sites bordering the river banks from Aswan to Abu Simbel were threatened with inundation and the scientific world took alarm. A large sum of money was assigned by the government, partly for the preservation of the visible temples in the area to be submerged, partly for an official expedition under the charge of Dr G. A. Reisner which was to search for all remains of antiquity hidden beneath the ground. At the same time the university of Pennsylvania despatched the Eckley B. Coxe, jun., expedition, which devoted its attention to the southern half of Lower Nubia from Haifa to Korosko, while the govern- ment excavators explored from Korosko to Aswan. Thus in the five years 1907-1911 inclusive an immense mass of new material was acquired which throws a flood of light on the archaeology at once of Egypt and the Sudan. For it must be clearly appreciated that though all except the southern twenty miles of Lower Nubia has been attached for purposes of admini- stration of Egypt proper, yet this political boundary is purely artificial. The natural geographical and ethnical southern frontier of Egypt is the First Cataract; Egyptian scribes of the Old Empire recognized this truth no less clearly than Diocletian, and Juvenal anticipates the verdict of every modern observer when he describes the " porta Syenes " as the gate of Africa. It is the more necessary to emphasize this fact as the present article must unavoidably be concerned principally with the most northern regions of the country of the Blacks — for since the days of Lepsius there has been little new investigation south of Haifa. The hasty reconnaissances of Dr Wallis Budge, Professor A. H. Sayce, Mr Somers Clarke and Professor J. Garstang must be followed by more thorough and intensive study before it can be possible to write in more than very general terms of anything but the well-known monuments left by Egyptian kings whose history is already tolerably familiar from other sources. The inscriptions of these kings and their officials have been collected by Professor J. H. Breasted and some account of the temples and fortresses from Haifa to Khartum will be found in the following section, Ancient Monuments south of Haifa, while the history of the early and medieval Christian kingdoms is outlined in the articles ETHIOPIA and DONGOLA. The central and southern Sudan is therefore almost a virgin field for the archaeologist, but the exploration of Lower Nubia has made it possible to write a tentative preface to the new chapters still unrevealed.
The Sudan was well named by the medieval Arab historians, for it is primarily and above all the country of the black races, of those Nilotic negroes whose birthplace may be supposed to have been near the Great Lakes. But upon this aboriginal stock were grafted in very early times fresh shoots of more vigorous and intellectual races coming probably from the East (cf . AFRICA : Ethnology) . Lower Nubia was one of the crucibles in which several times was formed a mixed nation which defied or actually dominated Egypt. There is some scientific ground
for dating the earliest example of such a fusion to the exact period of the Egyptian Old Empire. It is certain in any case that the process was constantly repeated at different dates and in different parts of the country from Aswan to Axum, and to the stimulation which resulted from it must be ascribed the principal political and intellectual movements of the Sudanese nations. Thus the Ethiopians who usurped the crown of the Pharaohs from 740-660 B.C. were of a mixed stock akin to the modern Barabra; the northern Nubians who successfully defied the Roman emperors were under the lordship of the Blemyes (Blemmyes), an East African tribe, and the empire of the Candace dynasty, no less than the Christian kingdoms which succeeded it, included many heterogeneous racial elements (see also NUBIA). The real history of the Sudan will therefore be concerned with the evolution of what may be called East African or East Central African civilizations.
Up to the present, however, this aspect has been obscured, for until 1907 scholars had little opportunity of studying ancient Ethiopia except as a colonial extension of Egypt. From the purely Egyptological standpoint there is much of value to be learned from the Sudan. The Egyptian penetration of the country began, according to the evidence of inscriptions, as early as the Old Empire. Under the Xllth Dynasty colonies were planted and fortresses established down to the Batn-el-Hagar. During the XVIIIth Dynasty the political subjugation was com- pleted and the newly won territories were studded with cities and temples as far south as the Fourth Cataract. Some two hundred years later the priests of Amen (Ammon), flying from Thebes, founded a quasi-Egyptian capital at Napata. But after this date Egypt played no part in the evolution of Ethiopia. Politically moribund, it succumbed to the attacks of its virile southern neigh- bours, who, having emerged from foreign tutelage, developed according to the natural laws of their own genius and environ- ment. The history of Ethiopia therefore as an independent civilization may be said to date from the 8th century B.C., though future researches may be able to carry its infant origins to a remoter past.
Of the thousand years or more of effective Egyptian occupa- tion many monuments exist, but on a broad general view it must be pronounced that they owe their fame more to the accident of survival than to any special intrinsic value. For excepting Philae, which belongs as much to Egypt as to Ethiopia, Abu Simbel is the only temple which can be ranked among first rate products of Egyptian genius. The other temples, attractive as they are, possess rather a local than a universal interest. Similarly while the exploration of the Egyptian colonies south of the First Cataract has added many details to our knowledge of political history, of local cults and provincial organization, yet with one exception it has not affected the known outlines of the history of civilization. This exception is the discovery made by Dr G. A. Reisner that the archaic culture first detected at Nagada and Abydos and then at many points as far north as Giza extended southwards into Nubia at least as far as Gerf Husein. This was wholly unexpected, and if, as seems probable, the evidence stands the test of criticism, it is a new historical fact of great importance. The government expedition found traces between Aswan and Korosko of all the principal periods from this early date down to the Christian era. The specimens 'obtained are kept in a separate room of the Cairo Museum, where they form a collection of great value.
The work of the Pennsylvanian expedition, however, while adding only a few details to the archaeology of the Egyptian periods, has opened a new chapter in the history of the African races. No records indeed were discovered of the founders of the first great Ethiopian kingdom from Piankhi to Tirhakah, nor has any fresh light been thrown upon the relations which that remarkable king Ergamenes maintained with the Egyptian Ptolemies. But the exploration of sites in the southern half of Lower Nubia has revealed the existence of a wholly unsus- pected independent civilization which grew up during the first six centuries after Christ. The history of the succeeding periods, moreover, has been partially recovered and the study
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of architecture enriched by the excavation of numerous churches dating from the time of Justinian, when Nubia was tirst Christian- ized, down to the late medieval period when Christianity was extirpated by Mahommedanism.
The civilization of the first six centuries A.D. may be called " Romano-Nubian," a term which indicates its date and suggests something of its character. It is the product of a people living on the borders of the Roman Empire who inherited much of the Hellenistic tradition in minor arts but combined it with a remarkable power of independent origination. The sites on which it has been observed range from Dakka to Haifa, that is to say within the precise limits which late Latin and Greek writers assign to the Blemyes, and there is good reason to identify the people that evolved it with this hitherto almost unknown barbarian nation. Apart from this, however, the greatest value of the new discoveries will consist in the fact that they may lay the foundations for a new documentary record of past ages. For the graves yielded not only new types of statues, bronzes, ivory carvings and painted pottery — all of the highest artistic value — but also a large number of stone stelae inscribed with funerary formulae in the Meroitic script.
In the course of sixty years the small collection of Meroitic inscriptions made by Lepsius had not been enlarged and no progress had been made towards decipherment. But the cemeteries of Shablul and Karanog alone yielded 1 70 inscriptions on stone, besides some inscribed ostraka. This mass of material brought the task of decipherment within the range of possibility, and even without any bilingual record to assist him, Mr F. LI. Griffith rapidly succeeded in the first stages of translation. As further explorations bring more inscriptions to light the records of Ethiopia will gradually be placed on a firm documentary basis and the names and achievements of its greatest monarchs will take their place on the roll of history.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — C.'R.Lcps{us,DenkmdlerausAegyptenundAelhio- pien (1849), Abh. yi., Briefe aus Aegypten, Aethiopien, &c. (1852), Nubische Grammatik (1880); H. Brugsch, Zeitschrift fur aegyptische Sprache (1887); F. Cailliaud, Voyage d, Meroe et au Fleuve Blanc (1826); E. A. Wallis Budge, The Egyptian Sudan (1907); G. A. Reisner and C. M. Firth, Reports on The Archaeological Survey of Nubia; G. Elliott Smith and F. Wood Jones, ibid. vol. ii. "The Human Remains" (1910); J. H. Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt (1906-1907), A History of Egypt (1905), Temples of Lower 'Nubia (1906), Monuments of Sudanese Nubia (1908); D. Randall-Maclver and C. L. Woolley, Reports of the Eckley B. Coxe, jun. expedition, viz. vol. i. Areika (1909), vols. iii., iv., v. Karanog (vol.- iii. "The Romano-Nubian Cemetery," text, vol. iv. ibid., plates, 1910), vol. vii. Behen; G. S. Mileham, Reports of the Eckley B. Coxe, jun., expedition, vol. ii. Churches in Lower Nubia (1910); F. LI. Griffith, Reports on the Eckley B. Coxe, jun., expedition, vol. vi. Meroitic Inscriptions from Shablul and Karanog, Meroitic Inscriptions, and 2 vols. on Tombs of- El Amarna; and the " Archaeological Survey " of the Egypt Exploration Fund. (D. R.-M.)
Ancient Monuments south of Haifa. — Ruins of pyramids, temples, churches and other monuments are found along both banks of the Nile almost as far south as the Fourth Cataract, and again in the " Island of Meroe'." In the following list the ruins are named as met with on the journey south from Wadi Haifa. Opposite that town on the east bank are the remains of Bohon, where was found the stele, now at Florence, com- memorating the conquest of the region by Senwosri (Usertesen) I. of Egypt (c. 2750 B.C.). Forty-three miles farther south are the ruins of the twin fortresses of Kumma and Semna. Here the Nile narrows and passes the Semna cataract, and graven on the rocks are ancient records of " high Nile." At Amara, some 80 m. above Semna, are the ruins of a temple with Meroitic hieroglyphics. At Sai Island, 130 m. above Haifa, are remains of a town and of a Christian church. Thirteen miles south of Sai at Soleb are the ruins of a fine temple commemorating Amenophis (Amenhotep) III. (c. 1414 B.C.) to whose queen Taia was dedicated a temple at Sedeinga, a few miles to the north At Sesebi, 40 m. higher up the Nile, is a temple of the heretic king Akhenaton re-worked by Seti I. (c. 1327 B.C.). Opposite Hannek at the Third Cataract on Tombos Island are extensive ancient granite quarries, in one of which lies an unfinished colossus. On the east side of the river near Kerma are the
remains of an Egyptian city. Argo Island, a short distance higher up, abounds in ruins, and those at Old Dongola, 320 m. from Haifa, afford evidence of the town having been of consider- able size during the time of the Christian kingdom of Dongola. From Old Dongola to Merawi (a distance of 100 m. by the river) are numerous ruins of monasteries, churches and fortresses of the Christian era in Nubia — notably at Jebel Deka and Magal. In the immediate neighbourhood of Jebel Barkal (the " holy mountain " of the ancient Egyptians), a flat-topped hill which rises abruptly from the desert on the right bank of the Nile a mile or two above the existing village of Merawi (Merowe), are many pyramids and six temples, the pyramids having a height of from 35 to 60 ft. Pyramids are also found at Zuma and Kurru on the right "bank, and at Tangassi on the left bank of the river, these places being about 20 m. below Merawi. That village is identified by some archaeologists with the ancient Napata, which is known to have been situated near the " holy mountain." On the left bank of the Nile opposite Merawi are the pyramids of Nuri, and a few miles distant in the Wadi Ghazal are the ruins of a great Christian monastery, where were found gravestones with inscriptions in Greek and Coptic. Ruins of various ages extend from Merawi to the Fourth Cataract.
Leaving the Nile at this point and striking direct across the Bayuda Desert, the river is regained at a point above the Atbara confluence. Thirty miles north of the town of Shendi are the pyramids of Meroe (or Assur) in three distinct groups. From one of these pyramids was taken " the treasure of Queen Candace," now in the Berlin Museum. Many of the pyramids have a small shrine on the eastern side inscribed with debased Egyptian or Meroite hieroglyphics. These pyramids are on the right bank of the Nile, that is in the " Island of Meroe." Portions (in- cluding a harbour) of the site of the city of Meroe, at Begerawia, not far from the pyramids named, were excavated in 1900-1910 (see MEROE). In this region, and distant from the river, are the remains of several cities, notably Naga, where are ruins of four temples, one in the Classic style. On the east bank of the Blue Nile, about 13 m. above Khartum at Soba, are ruins of a Christian basilica. Farther south still, at Ceteina on the White Nile (in 1904), and at Wad el-Hadad, some miles north of Sennar, on the Blue Nile (in 1908), Christian remains have been observed.
Between the Nile at Wadi Haifa and the Red Sea are the remains of towns inhabited by the ancient miners who worked the district. The most striking of these towns is Deraheib (Castle Beautiful), so named from the picturesque situation of the castle, a large square building with pointed arches. The walls of some 500 houses still stand.
For a popular account (with many illustrations) of these ruins see J. Ward, Our Sudan: Its Pyramids and Progress (London, loos).
(F. R. CY) HISTORY
A. From the Earliest Time to the Egyptian Conquest. — The southern regions of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan are without recorded history until the era of the Egyptian conquest in the
th century. In the northern regions, known as Ethiopia or Nubia, Egyptian influence made itself felt as early as the Old Empire. In process of time powerful states grew up with capitals at Napata and Meroe (see ante § Archaeology and ETHIOPIA and EGYPT). The Nubians— that is the dwellers in the Nile valley between Egypt and Abyssinia — did not embrace Christianity until the 6th century, considerably later than their Abyssinian neighbours. The Arab invasion of North Africa in the 7th century, which turned Egypt into a Mahommedan country, had not the same effect in Nubia, the Moslems, though they frequently raided the country, being unable to hold it. On the ruins of the ancient Ethiopian states arose Christian the Christian kingdoms of Dongola and Aloa, with Kingdoms of capitals at Dongola and Soba (corresponding roughly Nabia- to Napata and Meroe). These kingdoms continued to exist until the .middle of the I4th century or later (see DONGOLA: Mudirio). Meanwhile Arabs of the Bern Omayya tribe, under pressure from the Beni Abbas, had begun to cross the Red Sea
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as early as the 8th century and to settle in the district around Sennar on the Blue Nile, a region which probably marked the southern limits of the kingdom of Aloa. The Omayya, who during the following centuries were reinforced by further immigrants from Arabia, intermarried with the negroid races, and gradually Arab influence became predominant and Islam the nominal faith of all the inhabitants of Sennar. In this way a barrier was erected between the Christians of Nubia and those of Abyssinia. By the isth century the Arabized negro races of the Blue Nile had grown into a powerful nation known as the Funj (q.v.), and during that century they extended their conquests north to the borders of Egypt. The kingdom of Dongola had already been reduced to a condition of anarchy by Moslem invasions from the north. Christianity was still professed by some of the Nubians as late as the i6th century, but the whole Sudan north of the lands of the pagan negroes (roughly 12° N.) was then under Moslem sway. At that time the sultans of Darfur (q.v.) in the west and the sultans or kings of Sennar (the Funj rulers) in the east were the most powerful of the Mahommedan potentates.
The first of the Funj monarchs acknowledged king of the whole of the allied tribes, of which the Hameg were next in importance to the Funj, was Amara Dunkas, who Baipire reigned c. I484-IS26.1 During the reign of Adlan, c. 1596-1603, the fame of Sennar attracted learned men to his court from such distant places as Cairo and Bagdad. Adlan's great-grandson Badi Abu Baku attacked the Shilluk negroes and raided Kordofan. This monarch built the great mosque at Sennar, almost the only building in the town to survive the ravages of the dervishes in the igth century. In the early part of the i8th century there was war between the Sennari and the Abyssinians, in which the last named were defeated with great slaughter. It is said that the cause of quarrel was the seizure by the king of Sennar of presents sent by the king of France to the Negus. The victory over the " infidel " Abyssinians became celebrated throughout the Mahommedan world, and Sennar was visited by many learned and celebrated men from Egypt, Arabia and India. Towards the end of the 1 8th century the Hameg wrested power from the Funj and the kingdom fell into decay, many of the tributary princes refusing to acknowledge the king of Sennar. These disorders con- tinued up to the time of the conquest of the country by the Egyptians.
B. From the Egyptian Conquest to the Rise of the Mahdi. — The conquest of Nubia was undertaken in 1820 by order of Mehemet AH, the pasha of Egypt, and was accomplished in 'he two years following. In its consequences this proved one of the most important events in the history of Africa. Mehemet Ali never stated the reasons which led him to order the occupation of the country, but his leading motive was, probably, the desire to obtain possession of the mines of gold and precious stones which he believed the Sudan contained. He also saw that the revenue of Egypt was falling through the diversion, since about 1800, of the caravan routes from the Nile to the Red Sea ports, and may have wished to recapture the trade, as well as to secure a country whence thousands of slaves could be brought annually. Mehemet Ali also wished to crush the remnant of the Mamelukes who in 1812 had established themselves at Dongola, and at the same time to find employment for the numerous Albanians and Turks in his army, of whose fidelity he was doubtful.
Mehemet Ali gave the command of the army sent to Nubia to his son Ismail, who at the head of some 4000 men left Wadi Haifa in October 1820. Following the Nile route he occupied Dongola without opposition, the Mamelukes fleeing before him. (Some of them went to Darfur and Wadai, others made their way to the Red Sea. This was the final dispersal of the Mame- lukes.) With the nomad Shagia, who dominated the district,
1 Various lists and dates of reign of the rulers of Sennar are given; reference may be made in Stokvis's Manuel d'histoire vol. i. (Leiden, 1888), and to The Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, vol. i. (London, 1905).
Egypt ** ^
Ismail had two sharp encounters, one near Korti, the other higher up the river, and in both fights Ismail was successful. Thereafter the Shagia furnished useful auxiliary cavalry to the Egyptians. Ismail remained in the Dongola province till Feb- ruary 1821, when he crossed the Bayuda Desert and received the submission of the meks (kings) of Berber, Shendi and Halfaya, nominal vassals of the king of Sennar. Continuing his march south Ismail reached the confluence of the White and Blue Niles and established a camp at Ras Khartum. (This camp developed into the city of Khartum.) At this time Badi, the king of Sennar, from whom all real power had been wrested by his leading councillors, determined to submit to the Egyptians, and as Ismail advanced up the Blue Nile he was met at Wad Medani by Badi who declared that he recognized Mehemet Ali as master of his kingdom. Ismail and Badi entered the town of Sennar together on the I2th of June 1821, and in this peaceable manner the Egyptians became rulers of the ancient empire of the Funj. In search of the gold-mines reported to exist farther south Ismail penetrated into the mountainous region of Fazokl, where the negroes offered a stout resistance. In February 1822 he set out on his return to Sennar and Dongola, having received reports of risings against Egyptian authority. The Egyptian soldiery had behaved throughout with the utmost barbarity, and their passage up the Nile was marked by rapine, murder, mutilation and fire. Of the rulers who had submitted to Ismail, Nair Mimr, the mek of Shendi, had been compelled to follow in the suite of the Egyptians as a sort of hostage, and this man entertained deep hatred of the pasha. On Ismail's return to Shendi, October 1822, he demanded of the mek 1000 slaves to be supplied in two days. The mek, promising compliance, invited Ismail and his chief officers to a feast in his house, around which he had piled heaps of straw. Whilst the Egyptians were feasting the mek set fire to the straw and Ismail and all his companions were burnt to death.
Ismail's death was speedily avenged. A second Egyptian army, also about 4000 strong, had followed that of Ismail's up the Nile, and striking south-west from Debba had wrested, after a sharp campaign, the province of Kordofan (1821) from the sultan of Darfur. This army was commanded by Mahommed Bey, the Defterdar, son-in-law of Mehemet Ah'. Hearing of Ismail's murder the Defterdar marched to Shendi, defeated the forces of the mek, and took terrible revenge upon the inhabitants of Metemma and Shendi, most of the inhabitants, including women and children, being burnt alive. Nair Mimr escaped to the Abyssinian frontier, where he maintained his independence. Having conquered Nubia, Sennar and Kordofan the Egyptians set up a civil government, placing at the head of the administra- tion a governor-general with practically unlimited power.* About this period Mehemet Ali leased from the sultan of Turkey the Red Sea ports of Suakin and Massawa, and by this means got into his hands all the trade routes of the eastern Sudan. The pasha of Egypt practically monopolized the trade of the country except that in slaves, which became a vast " industry," the lands inhabited by negro tribes on the borders of the con- quered territories being raided annually for the purpose. From the negro population the army was so largely recruited that in a few years the only non-Sudanese in it were officers. The Egyptian rule proved harmful to the country. The governors- general and the leading officials were nearly all Turks, Albanians or Circassians, and, with rare exceptions, the welfare of the people formed no part of their conception of government.8 Numerous efforts were made to extend the authority of Egypt. In 1840 — previous attempts having been unsuccessful — the fertile district of Taka, watered by the Atbara and Gash and near the Abyssinian frontier, was conquered and the town of
2 For a list of the governors-general see The Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, i. p. 280 (London, 1905).
1 Khurshid Pasha, governor-general for 13 years (1826-1839), was one of these exceptions. He gained a great reputation both for rectitude and vigour. He led expeditions up the White Nile against the Dinkas as far as Fashoda; defeated the Abyssinians on the Sennar frontier, and taught the natives of Khartum to build houses of brick.
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Kassala founded. In 1837 the pasha himself visited the Sudan, going as far as Fazokl, where he inspected the goldfields.
In 1849 Abd-el-Latif Pasha became governor-general and attempted to remedy some of the evils which disfigured the administration. He remained in office, however, little more than a year, too short a period to effect reforms. The Sudan was costing Egypt more money than its revenue yielded, though it must not be forgotten that large sums found their way illicitly into the. hands of the pashas. The successors of Mehemet Ali, in an endeavour to make the country more profitable, extended their conquests to the south, and in 1853 and subsequent years trading posts were established on the Upper Nile, the pioneer European merchant being John Petherick, British consular agent at Khartum.1 Petherick sought for ivory only, but those who followed him soon found that slave-raiding was more profitable than elephant hunting. The viceroy Said, who made a rapid tour through the Sudan in 1857, found it in a deplorable condition. The viceroy ordered many reforms to be executed and proclaimed the abolition of slavery. The reforms were mainly inoperative and slavery continued. The project which Said also conceived of linking the Sudan to Egypt by railway remained unfulfilled. The Sudan at this time (c. 1862) is described by Sir Samuel Baker as utterly ruined by Egyptian methods of government and the retention of the country only to be accounted for by the traffic in slaves. The European merchants above Khartum had sold their posts to Arab agents, who oppressed the natives in every conceivable fashion. Ismail Pasha, who became viceroy of Egypt in 1863, gave orders, for the suppression of the slave trade, and to check the operations of the Arab traders a military force was stationed at Fashoda (1865), this being the most southerly point then held by the Egyptians. Ismail's efforts to put an end to the slave trade, if sincere, were ineffective, and, moreover, south of Kordofan the authority of the government did not extend beyond the posts occupied by their troops. Ismail, however, was ambitious to extend his dominions and to develop the Sudan on the lines he had conceived for the development of Egypt. He obtained (1865) from the sultan of Turkey a finnan assigning to him the administration of Suakin and Massawa; the lease which Mehemet Ali had of these ports having lapsed after the death of that pasha. Ismail subsequently (1870-1875) extended his sway over the whole coast from Suez to Cape Guardafui and garrisoned the towns of Berbera, Zaila, &c., while in 1874 the important town of Harrar, the entrep6t for southern Abyssinia, was seized by Egyptian troops. The khedive had also seized Bogos, in the hinterland of Massawa, a province claimed by Abyssinia. This action led to wars with Abyssinia, in which the Egyptians were generally beaten. Egyptian authority was withdrawn from the coast regions south of Suakin in 1884 (see below and also ABYSSINIA; ERITREA and SOMALILAND).
At the same time that Ismail annexed the seaboard he was extending his sway along the Nile valley to the equatorial lakes, and conceived the idea of annexing all the country between the Nile and the Indian Ocean. An expedition was sent (1875) to the Juba River with that object, but it was withdrawn at the request of the British government, as it infringed the rights of the sultan of Zanzibar.2 The control of all territories south of Gondokoro had been given (April i, 1869) to Sir Samuel Baker, who, however, only left Khartum to take up his governor- The sn'P 'n February 1870. Reaching Gondokoro on
Equatorial the 26th of May following, he formally annexed Regions: that station, which he named Ismailia, to the khedival domains. Baker remained as governor of the Equa- torial Provinces until August 1873, and in March 1874 Colonel C. G. Gordon took up the same post. Both Baker and
1 The government monopoly in trade ceased after the death of Mehemet Ali in 1849.
* The Juba was quite unsuitable as a means of communication between the Indian Ocean and the Nile. The proposal made to Ismail by Gordon was to send an expedition to Mombasa and thence up the Tana River, but for some unexplained reason, or perhaps by mistake, the expedition was ordered to the Juba (see Col. Gordon in Central Africa, 4th ed., 1885, pp. 65, 66, 150 and 151, and Geog. Journ., Feb. I, 1909, p. 150).
Darfur
contjucrvd.
Gordon made strenuous efforts towards crushing the slave trade, but their endeavours were largely thwarted by the inaction of the authorities at Khartum. Under Gordon the Upper Nile region as far as the borders of Uganda came effectively under Egyptian control, though the power of the government extended on the east little beyond the banks of the rivers. On the west the Bahr-el-Ghazal had been overrun by Arab or semi-Arab slave-dealers. Nominally subjects of the khedive, they acted as free agents, reducing the country over which they terrorized to a state of abject misery. The most powerful of the slave traders was Zobeir Pasha, who, having defeated a force sent from Khartum to reduce him to obedience, invaded Darfur (1874). The khedive, fearing the power of Zobeir, also sent an expedition to Darfur, and that country, after a stout resist- ance, was conquered. Zobeir claimed to be made governor- general of the new province; his request being refused, he went to Cairo to urge his claim. At Cairo he was detained by the Egyptian authorities.
Though spasmodic efforts were made to promote agriculture and open up communications the Sudan continued to be a con- stant drain on the Egyptian exchequer. The khedive Ismail revived Said's project of a railway, and a survey for a line from Wadi Haifa to Khartum was made (1871), while a branch line to Massawa was also contemplated. As with Said's project these schemes came to naught.3 In October 1876 Gordon left the Equatorial Provinces and gave up his appointment. In February 1877, under pressure from the British Genera/ and Egyptian governments, he went to Cairo, where Gordon he. was given the governorship of the whole of the Oovemor- Egyptian territories outside Egypt; namely, the **" Sudan provinces proper, the Equatorial Provinces, Darfur, and the Red Sea and Somali coasts. He replaced at Khartum Ismail Pasha Eyoub, a Turk made governor-general in 1873, who had thwarted as much as he dared all Gordon's efforts to reform. Gordon remained in the Sudan until August 1879. During his tenure of office he did much to give the Sudanese the benefit of a just and considerate government. In 1877 Gordon suppressed a revolt in Darfur and received the submission of Suliman Zobeir (a son of Zobeir Pasha), who was at the head of a gang of slave-traders on the Bahr-el-Ghazal frontier. In 1878 there was further trouble in Darfur and also in Kordofan, and Gordon visited both these provinces, breaking up many companies of slave-hunters. Meantime Suliman (acting on the instructions of his father, who was still at Cairo) had broken out into open revolt against the Egyptians in the Bahr-el- Ghazal. The crushing of Suliman was entrusted by Gordon to Romolo Gessi (1831-1881), an Italian who had previously served under Gordon on the Upper Nile. Gessi, after a most arduous campaign (1878-79), in which he displayed great military skill, defeated and captured Suliman, whom, with other ring- leaders, he executed. The slave-raiders were completely broken up and over 10,000 captives released. A remnant of Zobeir's troops under a chief named Rabah succeeded in escaping west- ward, (see RABAH). Having conquered the province Gessi was made governor of the Bahr-el-Ghazal and given the rank of pasha.
When Gordon left the Sudan he was succeeded at Khartum by Raouf Pasha, under whom all the old abuses of the Egyptian administration were revived. At this time the high European officials in the Sudan, besides Gessi, included Emin Pasha (q.v.) — then a bey only — governor of the Equatorial Province since 1878, and Slatin Pasha — then also a bey — governor of Darfur. Gessi, who had most successfully governed his province, found his position under Raouf intolerable, resigned his post in Sep- tember 1880 and was succeeded by Frank Lupton, an English- man, and formerly captain of a Red Sea merchant steamer, who was given the rank of bey. At this period (1880-1882) schemes for the reorganization and better administration of the Sudan were elaborated on paper, but the revolt in Egypt under Arabi (see EGYPT: History) and the appearance in the Sudan of a Mahdi prevented these schemes from being put into
8 Up to 1877, when the work was abandoned, some 50 m. of rails had been laid from Wadi Haifa at a cost of some £450,000.
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execution (assuming that the Egyptian authorities were sincere in proposing reforms).
C. The Rise and Power of Mahdism. — The Mahdist move- ment, which was utterly to overthrow Egyptian rule, derived its strength from two different causes: the oppression under which the people suffered,1 and the measures taken to prevent the Baggara (cattle-owning Arabs) from slave trading. Venality and the extortion of the tax-gatherer flourished anew after the departure of Gordon, while the feebleness of his successors inspired in the Baggara a contempt for the authority which prohibited them pursuing their most lucrative traffic. When Mahommed Ahmed (q.v.), a Dongolese, proclaimed himself the long-looked-for Mahdi (guide) of Islam, he found most of .his original followers among the grossly superstitious villagers of Kordofan, to whom he preached universal equality and a community of goods, while denouncing the Turks2 as unworthy Moslems on whom God would execute judgment. The Baggara perceived in this Mahdi one who could be used to shake off Egyptian rule, and their adhesion to him first gave importance to his " mission." Mahommed Ahmed became at once the leader and the agent of the Baggara. He married the daughters of their sheikhs and found in Abdullah, a member of theTaaisha section of the tribe, his chief supporter. The first armed conflict The between the Egyptian troops and the Mahdi's
Massacre of followers occurred in August 1881. In June 1882 Hicks the Mahdi gained his first considerable success.
Pasha's The capture of El Obeid on the i?th of January Army. lgg3 and the annjhilation in the November following
of an army of over 10,000 men commanded by Hicks Pasha (Colonel William Hicks [q.v.] formerly of the Bombay army) made the Mahdi undisputed master of Kordofan and Sennar. The next month, December 1883, saw the surrender of Slatin in Darfur, whilst in February 1884 Osman Digna, his amir in the Red Sea regions, inflicted a crushing defeat on some 4000 Egyptians at El Teb near Suakin. In April following Lupton Bey, governor of Bahr-el-Ghazal, whose troops and officials had embraced the Mahdist cause, surrendered and was sent captive to Omdurman, where he died on the 8th of May 1888.
On learning of the disaster to Hicks Pasha's army, the British government (Great Britain having been since 1882 in military occupation of Egypt) insisted that the Egyptian government should evacuate such parts of the Sudan as they still held, and General Gordon was despatched, with Lieut .-Colonel Donald H. Stewart,3 to Khartum to arrange the withdrawal of the Egyptian civil and military population. Gordon's instructions, based largely on his own suggestions, were not wholly consistent; they contemplated vaguely the establishment of some form of stable government on the surrender of Egyptian Gordon at authorj|-y an(] among the documents with which Khartum, *.-,-, r , • i •
he was furnished was a firman creating him governor- general of the Sudan.4 Gordon reached Khartum on the i8th of February 1884 and at first his mission, which had aroused great enthusiasm in England, promised success. To smooth the way for the retreat of the Egyptian garrisons and civilians he issued proclamations announcing that the suppression of the slave trade was abandoned, that the Mahdi was sultan of Kordofan, and that the Sudan was independent of Egypt. He enabled some thousands of refugees to make their escape to
1 Writing from Darfur in April 1879 Gordon said: " The govern- ment of the Egyptians in these far-off countries is nothing else but one of brigandage of the very worst description. It is so bad that all hope of ameliorating it is hopeless."
1 The Sudanese spoke of all foreigners as " Turks." This arose from the fact that most of the higher Egyptian officials were of Turkish nationality and that the army was officered mainly by Turks, Albanians, Circassians, &c., and included in the ranks many Bashi-Bazuks (irregulars) of non-Sudanese origin.
' Colonel Stewart had been sent to Khartum in 1882 on a mission of inquiry, and he drew up a valuable report, Egypt, No. II (1883).
4 It is unnecessary here to enter upon a discussion of the precise nature of Gordon's instructions or of the measure in which he carried them out. The material for forming a judgment will be found in Gordon's Journals (1885), Morley's Life of Gladstone (1903), Fitz- maurice's Life of Granville (1905), and Cramer's Modern Egypt (1908). (See also GORDON, CHARLES GEORGE.)
Assuan and collected at Khartum troops from some of the out- lying stations. By this time the situation had altered for the worse and Mahdism was gaining strength among tribes in the Nile valley at first hostile to its propaganda. As the only means of preserving authority at Khartum (and thus securing the peaceful withdrawal of the garrison) Gordon repeatedly tele- graphed to Cairo asking that Zobeir Pasha might be sent to him, his intention being to hand over to Zobeir the government of the country. Zobeir (q.v.), a Sudanese Arab, was probably the one man who could have withstood successfully the Mahdi. Owing to Zobeir's notoriety as a slave-raider Gordon's request was refused. All hope of a peaceful retreat of the Egyptians was thus rendered impossible. The Mahdist movement now swept northward and on the 2oth of May Berber was captured by the dervishes and Khartum isolated. From this time the energies of Gordon were devoted to the defence of that town. After months of delay due to the vacillation of the British government a relief expedition was sent up the Nile under the command of Lord Wolseley. It started too late to achieve its object, and on the 25th of January 1885 Khartum was captured by the Mahdi and Gordon killed. Colonel Stewart, Frank Power (British consul at Khartum) and M. Herbin (French consul), who (accompanied by nineteen Greeks) had been sent down the Nile by Gordon in the previous September to give news to the relief force, had been decoyed ashore and murdered (Sept. 18, 1884). The fall of Khartum was followed by the withdrawal of the British expedition, Dongola being evacuated in June 1885. In the same month Kassala capitulated, but just as the Mahdi had practically completed the destruction of the Egyptian power 5 he died, in this same month of June 1885. He was at once succeeded by the khalifa Abdullah, whose rule continued until the 2nd of September i8p8,6 when his army was completely overthrown by an Anglo-Egyptian force under Sir H. (afterwards Lord) Kitchener. The military operations are described elsewhere (see EGYPT: Military Opera- tions), and here it is only necessary to consider the internal situation and the character of the khalifa's govern- The ment. The Mahdi had been regarded by his adhe- Khalifa'* rents as the only true commander of the faithful, *?"**• endued with divine power to conquer the whole world. He had at first styled his followers dervishes (i.e. religious mendi- cants) and given them the j ibba as their characteristic garment or uniform. Later on he commanded the faithful to call them- selves ansar (helpers), a reference to the part they were to play in his Career of conquest, and at the time of his death he was planning an invasion of Egypt. He had liberated the Sudanese from the extortions of the Egyptians, but the people soon found that the Mahdi's rule was even more oppressive than had been that of their former masters, and after the Mahdi's death the situation of the peasantry in particular grew rapidly worse, neither life nor property being safe. Abdullah set himself steadily to crush all opposition to his own power. Mahommed Ahmed had, in accordance with the traditions which required the Mahdi to have four khalifas (lieutenants), nominated, besides Abdullah, Ali wad Helu, a sheikh of the Degheim and Kenana Arabs, and Mahommed esh Sherif, his son-in-law, as khalifas. (The other khalifaship was vacant having been declined by the sheikh es Senussi [q.v.]). Wad Helu and Sherif were stripped of their power and gradually all chiefs and amirs not of the Baggara tribe were got rid of except Osman Digna, whose sphere of operations was on the Red Sea coast. Abdullah's rule was a pure military despotism which brought the country to a state of almost complete agricultural and commercial ruin. He was also almost constantly in conflict either with the Shilluks, Nuers and other negro tribes of the south ; with the peoples of Darfur, where at one time an anti-Mahdi gained a great following; with the Abyssinians; with the Kabbabish and other Arab tribes who
6 Sennar town held out until the igth of August, while the Red Sea ports of Suakin and Massawa never fell into the hands of the Mahdists. The garrisons of some other towns were rescued by the Abyssinians.
6 This period in the history of the Sudan is known as the Mahdia.
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had never embraced Mahdism, or with the Italians, Egyptians and British. Notwithstanding all this opposition the khalifa found in his own tribesmen and in his black troops devoted adherents and successfully maintained his position. The attempt to conquer Egypt ended in the total defeat of the dervish army at Toski (Aug. 3, 1889). The attempts to subdue the Equatorial Provinces were but partly successful. Emin Pasha, to whose relief H. M. Stanley had gone, evacuated Wadelai in April 1889. The greater part of the region and also most of the Bahr-el-Ghazal relapsed into a state of complete savagery.
In the country under his dominion the khalifa's government was carried on after the manner of other Mahommedan states, but pilgrimages to the Mahdi's tomb at Omdurman were substi- tuted for pilgrimages to Mecca. The arsenal and dockyard and the printing-press at Khartum were kept busy (the workmen being Egyptians who had escaped massacre). Otherwise Khartum was deserted, the khalifa making Omdurman his capital and compelling disaffected tribes to dwell in it so as to be under better control. While Omdurman grew to a huge size the population of the country generally dwindled enormously from constant warfare and the ravages of disease, small-pox being endemic. The Europeans in the country were kept prisoners at Omdurman. Besides ex-officials like Slatin and Lupton, they included several Roman Catholic priests and sisters, and numbers of Greek merchants established at Khartum. Although several were closely imprisoned, loaded with chains and repeatedly flogged, it is a noteworthy fact that none was put to death. From time to time a prisoner made his escape, and from the accounts of these ex-prisoners knowledge of the character of Dervish rule is derived in large measure. The fanaticism with which the Mahdi had inspired his followers remained almost unbroken to the end. The khalifa after the fatal day of Omdur- man fled to Kordofan where he was killed in battle in November 1899. In January 1900 Osman Digna, a wandering fugitive for months, was captured. In 1902 the last surviving dervish amir of importance surrendered to the sultan of Darfur. Mahdism as a vital force in the old Egyptian Sudan ceased, however, with the Anglo-Egyptian victory at Omdurman.1
D. The Anglo-Egyptian Condominium. — Of the causes which led to the reconquest of the Sudan — the natural desire of the Egyptian government to recover lost territory, the equally natural desire in Great Britain to "avenge " the death of "Gordon were among them — the most weighty was the necessity of securing for Egypt the control of the Upper Nile, Egypt being wholly dependent on the waters of the river for its prosperity. That control would have been lost had a European power other than Great Britain obtained possession of any part of the Nile valley; and at the time the Sudan was reconquered (1896-98) France was endeavouring to establish her authority on the river between Khartum and Gondokoro, as the Marchand expedition from the Congo to Fashoda demonstrated. The Nile constitutes, in the words of Lord Cromer, the true justification of the policy of re-occupation, and makes the Sudan a priceless possession for Egypt.1
The Sudan having been reconquered by " the joint military and financial efforts" of Great Britain and Egypt, the British government claimed " by right of conquest " to share in the settlement of the administration and legislation of the country. To meet these claims an agreement (which has been aptly called the constitutional charter of the Sudan) between Great Britain and Egypt, was signed on the igth of January 1899, establishing the joint sovereignty of the two states throughout
1 In the autumn of 1903 Mahommed-el-Amin, a native of Tunis, proclaimed himself the Mahdi and got together a following in Kor- dofan. He was captured by the governor of Kordofan and publicly executed at El Obeid. In April 1908 Abd-el-Kader, a Halowin Arab and ex-dervish, rebelled in the Blue Nile province, claiming to be the prophet Issa (Jesus). On the agth of that month he murdered Mr C. C. Scott-Moncrieff, deputy inspector of the province, and the Egyptian mamur. The rising was promptly suppressed, Abd-el- Kader was captured and was hanged on the i;th of May.
1 Egypt, No. i (1905), p. 119.
the Sudan.' The reorganization of the country had already begun, supreme power being centred in one official termed the " governor-general of the Sudan." To this post was appointed Lord Kitchener, the sirdar (commandcr-in-chief ) of the Egyptian army, under whom the Sudan had been reconquered. On Lord Kitchener going to South Africa at the close of 1899 he was succeeded as sirdar and governor-general by Major-General Sir F. R. Wingate, who had served with the Egyptian army since 1883. Under a just and firm administration, which from the first was essentially civil, though the principal officials were officers of the British army, the Sudan recovered in a surprising manner from the woes it suffered during the Mahdia. At the head of every mudiria (province) was placed a British official, though many of the subordinate posts were filled by Egyptians. An exception was made in the case of Darfur, which before the battle of Omdurman had thrown off the khalifa's rule and was again under a native sovereign. This potentate, the sultan Ali Dinar, was recognized by the Sudan government, on condition of the payment of an annual tribute.
The first duty of the new administration, the restoration of public order, met with comparatively feeble opposition, though tribes such as the Nuba mountaineers, accustomed from time immemorial to raid their weaker neighbours, gave some trouble. In 1906, in 1908, and again in 1910 expeditions had to be sent against the Nubas. In the Bahr-el-Ghazal the Niam-Niams at first disputed the authority of the government, but Sultan Yambio, the recalcitrant chief, was mortally wounded in a fight in February 1905 and no further disturbance occurred. The delimitation (1903-1904) of the frontier between the Sudan and Abyssinia enabled order to be restored in a particularly lawless region, and slave-raiding on a large scale ended in that quarter with the capture and execution of a notorious offender in 1904. In Kordofan, Darfur and the Bahr-el-Ghazal the slave trade continued however for some years later.
With good administration and public security the population increased steadily. The history of the country became one of peaceful progress marked by the growing content- Ti,eKe. ment of the people. The Sudan government devoted generative much attention to the revival of agriculture and Work of commerce, to the creation of an educated class of 2/*Sto natives, and to the establishment of an adequate judicial system. Their task, though one of immense difficulty, was however (in virtue of the agreement of the igth of January 1899) free from all the international fetters that bound the administration of Egypt. It was moreover rendered easier by the decision to govern, as far as possible, in accordance with native law and custom, no attempt being made to Egyptianize or Anglicize the Sudanese. The results were eminently satis- factory. The Arab-speaking and Mahommedan population found their religion and language respected, and from the first showed a marked desire to profit by the new order. To the negroes of the southern Sudan, who were exceedingly suspicious of all strangers — whom hitherto they had known almost exclusively as slave-raiders — the very elements of civilization had, in most cases, to be taught. In these pagan regions the Sudan government encouraged the work of missionary societies, both Protestant and Roman Catholic, while discouraging propaganda work among the Moslems.
In their general policy the Sudan government adopted a system of very light taxation; low taxation being in countries such as Egypt and the Sudan the keystone of the political arch. This policy was amply justified by results. In 1899 the revenue derived from the country was ££126,000, in 1909 it had risen to ££1,040,000, despite slight reductions in taxation, a proof of the growing prosperity of the land. This prosperity was brought about largely by improving the water-supply, and thus bringing more land under cultivation, by the creation of new industries, and by the improvement of means of communication. A shorter route to the sea than that through Egypt being essential for the
' At first Suakin was excepted from soms of the provisions of this agreement, but these exceptions were done away with by a supplementary agreement of the loth of July 1899.
SUDATORIUM— SUDBURY
commercial development of the country, a railway from the Nile near Berber to the Red Sea was built (1904-1906). This line shortened the distance from Khartum to the nearest seaport by nearly 1000 m., and by reducing the cost of carriage of mer- chandise enabled Sudan produce to find a profitable outlet in the markets of the world. At the same time river communi- cations were improved and the numbers of wells on caravan roads increased. Steps were furthermore taken by means of irrigation works to regulate the Nile floods, and those of the river Gash.
To the promotion of education and sanitation, and in the administration of justice, the government devoted much energy with satisfactory results. Indeed the regenerative work of Great Britain in the Sudan has been fully as successful and even more remarkable than that of Great Britain in Egypt. A large part of this work has been accomplished by officers of the British army. Some of the most valuable suggestions about such matters as land settlement, agricultural loans, &c., emanated from officers who a short time before were performing purely military duties.
Nevertheless civil servants gradually replaced military officers in the work of administration, army officers being liable to be suddenly removed for war or other service, often at times when the presence of officials possessed of local experience was most important. In efficiency and devotion to duty the Egyptian officials under the new regime also earned high praise.
The relations of the Sudan government with its Italian, Abyssinian and French neighbours was marked by cordiality, Bahr-ei- but with the Congo Free State difficulties arose over ahazai and claims made by that state to the Bahr-el-Ghazal Lado. (gee AFRICA, § 5). Congo State troops were in 1904 stationed in Sudanese territory. The difficulty was adjusted in 1906 when the Congo State abandoned all claims to the Ghazal province (whence its troops were withdrawn during 1907), and it was agreed to transfer the Lado enclave (q.v.) to the Sudan six months after the death of the king of the Belgians. Under the terms of this agreement the Lado enclave was incorporated in the Sudan in 1910. As to the general state of the country Sir Eldon Gorst after a tour of inspection declared in his report for 1909, " I do not suppose that there is any part of the world in which the mass of the population have fewer unsatisfied wants."
AUTHORITIES. — Summaries of ancient and medieval history will be found in E. A. Wallis Budge, The Egyptian Sudan (2 vols., 1907) and The Anglo-Egyptian Sudan (1095), edited by Count Gleichen. The story of the Egyptian conquest and events up to 1850 are summarized in H. Deherain's Le Soudan egyptien sous Mehemet Ali (Paris, 1898). For the middle period of Egyptian rule see Sir Samuel Baker's Ismailia (1874) ; Col. Gordon in Central Africa, edited by G. Birkbeck Hill (4th ed., 1885), being extracts from Gordon's diary, 1874-1880; Seven Years in the Soudan, by Romolo Gessi Pasha (1892); and Der Sudan unter dgyptischer Herrschaft, by R. Buchta (Leipzig, 1888). The rise of Mahdism and events down to 1900 are set forth in (Sir) F. R. Wingate's Mahdiism and the Egyptian Sudan (1891). This book contains translations of letters and proclamations of the Mahdi and Khalifa. For this period the Journals of Major General Gordon at Khartoum (1885); F. Power's Letters from Khartoum during the Siege (1885), and the following four books written by prisoners of the dervishes are specially valuable : Slatin Pasha, Fire and Sword in the Sudan (1896); Father J. Ohrwalder (from the MSS. of, by F. R. Wingate), Ten Years' Captivity in the Mahdi' s Camp (1882-1892) (1892); Father Paolo Rosignoli, 7 miei dodici anni di prigionia in mezzo ai dervice del Sudan (Mondovi, 1898); C. Neufeldt, A Prisoner of the Khaleefa (1899). See also G. Dujarric, L'Etat mahdiste du Soudan (Paris, 1901). For the " Gordon Relief " campaign, &c., see the British official History of the Sudan Campaign (1890); for the campaigns of 1896-98, H. S. L. Alford and W. D. Sword, The Egyptian Soudan, its Loss and Recovery (1898); G. W. Steevens, With Kitchener to Khartum (Edinburgh, 1898) ; Winston S. Churchill, The River War (revised ed., 1902). The story of the Fashoda incident is told mainly in British and French official despatches; consult also for this period G. Hanotaux, Fachoda (Paris, 1910) ; A. Lebon, La Politique de la France 1896-1898 (Paris, 1901); and R. de Caix, Fachoda, la France et I'Angleterre (Paris, 1899). Lord Cromer's Modern Egypt (1908) covers Sudanese history for the years 1881—1907. Consult also the authorities cited under EGYPT) : Modern History, and H. Pensa,L'Egypte et le Soudan egyptien (Paris, 1895). Unless otherwise stated the place of publication is London. (F. R. C.)
SUDATORIUM, the term in architecture for the vaulted sweating-room (sudor, sweat) of the Roman thermae, referred to in Vitruvius (v. 2), and there called the concamerala sudalio.
In order to obtain the great heat required, the whole wall was lined with vertical terra-cotta flue pipes of rectangular section, placed side by side, through which the hot air and the smoke from the suspensura passed to an exit in the roof.
SUDBURY, SIMON OF (d. 1381), archbishop of Canterbury, was born at Sudbury in Suffolk, studied at the university of Paris, and became one of the chaplains of Pope Innocent VI., who sent him, in 1356, on a mission to Edward III. of England. In October 1361 the pope appointed him bishop of London, and he was soon serving the king as an ambassador and in other ways. In 1375 he succeeded William Wittlesey as archbishop of Canter- bury, and during the rest of his life was a partisan of John of Gaunt. In July 1377 he crowned Richard II., and in 1378 John Wycliffe appeared before him at Lambeth, but he only took proceedings against the reformer under great pressure. In January 1380 Sudbury became chancellor of England, and the revolting peasants regarded him as one of the principal authors of their woes. Having released John Ball from his prison at Maidstone, the Kentish insurgents attacked and damaged the archbishop's property at Canterbury and Lambeth; then, rushing into the Tower of London, they seized the archbishop himself. Sudbury was dragged to Tower Hill and, on the I4th of June 1381, was beheaded. His body was afterwards buried in Canterbury Cathedral. Sudbury rebuilt part of the church of St Gregory at Sudbury, and with his brother, John of Chertsey, he founded a college in this town; he also did some building at Canterbury. His father was Nigel Theobald, and he is some- times called Simon Theobald or Tybald.
See W. F. Hook, Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury.
SUDBURY, a post town and outport of Nipissing district, Ontario, Canada, on the Canadian Pacific railway, 443 m. W. of Montreal. Pop. (1901), 2027. It has manufactures of explosives, lumber and planing mills, and is the largest nickel mining centre in the world. Gold, copper and other minerals are also raised- Practically all the ore is shipped to the United States.
SUDBURY, a market town and municipal borough of England, chiefly in the Sudbury parliamentary division of Suffolk, but partly in the Saffron Walden division of Essex. Pop. (1901), 7109. It b'es on the river Stour (which is navigable up to the town), 59 m. N.E. from London by the Great Eastern railway. All Saints' parish church, consisting of chancel, nave, aisles and tower, is chiefly Perpendicular — the chancel being Decorated. It possesses a fine oaken pulpit of 1490. The church was restored in 1882. St Peter's is Perpendicular, with a finely carved nave roof. St Gregory's, once collegiate, is Perpendicular. It has a rich spire-shaped font-cover of